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Appendix 7.1: World Health Organization Guideline ValuesCompound a Guideline Value Averaging TimeOzone 120 micrograms/cubic meter (0.06 ppm) 8 hoursNitrogen dioxideSulfur dioxideCarbon monoxide b200 micrograms/cubic meter (0.11 ppm)40 to 50 micrograms/cubic meter (0.021 –0.026 ppm)500 micrograms/cubic meter (0.175 ppm)125 micrograms/cubic meter (0.044 ppm)50 micrograms per cubic meter (0.017 ppm)100 mg/cubic meter (90 ppm)60 mg/cubic meter (50 ppm)30 mg/cubic meter (25 ppm)10 mg/cubic meter ( 10 ppm)1 hour1 year10 min24 hours1 year15 min30 min1 hour8 hoursLead c 0.5 to 1.0 micrograms/cubic meter 1 yearmg = milligram, p pm = parts per millionaGuideline value for particulate matter is no longer set because there is no evident threshold (lowest safe level) for effec ts on morbidity and mortality. (See belowfor previous guideline value for particulate matter).bThe guideline is to prevent carboxyhemoglobin levels in the blood from exceeding 2.5%. The values are mathematical estimates of some CO concentrations andaveraging times over which this goal should be achieved.cThe guideline for lead was established by WHO in 1987.Source: WHO Ambient Air Quality Guidelines, http://w3.whosea.org/techinfo/air.htmPrevious WHO Guideline Value for Particulate MatterWHO Air Quality Guidelines (mg/m 3 )Duration TSP PM10Long Term (annual average) 60–90Short Term (24 hour average) 150–230 70Short Term (8 hour average) 120 70Source: CBS (2004)102 Environment Assessment of Nepal : Emerging Issues and Challenges
Chapter 8Urban EnvironmentIntroductionUrban areas play an important role in economic,political, and cultural development. Theconcentrated population and production inurban areas leads to greatly reduced unit costs inproviding and managing basic infrastructure andservices, better employment and livelihoodopportunities, and easier participation in the politicalprocess. The same concentration, however, makesurban areas consumers of resources and producersof pollution, resulting in a wide range ofenvironmental problems in the cities and beyond.Historically, cities grew gradually over longperiods of time, which provided time andopportunity to address their emerging needs. In thepast half-century, the pace of urbanization indeveloping countries has accelerated greatly. Often,rapid urban growth has taken place withoutmatching expansion of the infrastructure, services,and facilities necessary for an adequate and healthyurban environment, and without adequate planningor regulation. This has caused deterioration in urbanenvironmental quality. Urban areas commonly faceshortages of safe drinking water and inadequateprovision of sanitation, solid waste collection anddisposal, drains, paved roads; and other forms ofinfrastructure and services necessary for a healthyenvironment. This results in bad water and airquality, unmanaged or mismanaged waste, andincreasing noise pollution. Urban areas also faceproblems in controlling encroachment into publicspaces and degradation of cultural sites and heritage.Rapid urban growth in itself need not produceserious environmental problems providedenvironmental implications are considered in asystematic, timely, and adequate way.Kathmandu Valley is the most urbanized regionin Nepal and its urban areas have been importanteconomically, administratively, and politically forhundreds of years. The urbanization of KathmanduValley goes back over 1500 years, and the old townsof the Valley are characterized by a strong culturalhistory and pattern—dense settlement withcourtyards as in-town open space, squares asintervening open spaces, temples and other culturalsites, and greenery and open space at the periphery.The old settlements were located at relatively higherelevations and surrounded and separated from eachother by agricultural land; almost all waste wasbiodegradable, and sewage was used in agriculture.Until fairly recently, except for sanitation, theenvironmental quality of the Valley towns wasexcellent (HMG/UNDP 1994). In the process of rapidgrowth, Nepal’s urban areas now face all the abovementionedproblems of infrastructure and servicedeficiency, and environmental management.Urban Growth and FeaturesUrban SettlementsThe municipalities designated by the Ministry ofLocal Development are the areas in Nepal formallydefined as urban. The criteria for designatingmunicipality status have been revised several timessince 1952 (Table 8.1). The current definition is givenby the Local Self Governance Act 1999, whichclassifies municipalities into three hierarchical levels:metropolitan city, sub-metropolitan city, andmunicipality. At present there are 1 metropolitan city(Kathmandu), 3 sub-metropolitan cities (Biratnagar,Lalitpur, Pokhara, and Birganj), and 53municipalities.The density, contiguity, and occupationalstructure of the population—which are generallyaccepted criteria for defining urban areas—havenever been considered in designating municipalitiesCrowded KathmanduNEFEJChapter 8: Urban Environment103
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About the OrganisationsAsian Develo
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© 2006 International Centre for In
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AcknowledgementsWe would like to ex
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PM2.5PAHRSSAARCSACEPSEASO 2TSPUKUND
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Chapter 6: Energy Resources 65Intro
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List of FiguresFigure 2.1: People a
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Table 6.1: Energy Consumption and P
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forests are also used for infrastru
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as data gathered by different agenc
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Table 2.1: Population Growth Rates
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mortality rates for rural and urban
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Agglomeration village in the centra
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soil erosion, and depletion of wate
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provision remains inadequate becaus
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Malnutrition remains a serious obst
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Table 2.24: Existing and Projected
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Table 2.28: Income Poverty Indicato
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Table 2.31: Change in Employment St
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In 2004, the average annual househo
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Mountain areas have the most food i
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Schaffner, U. 1987. “Road Constru
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Table 3.1: Agricultural Economic De
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Table 3.4: Estimated Soil Erosion R
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B. PradhanImpacts of land degradati
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Carson, B. 1985. “Erosion and Sed
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The trend of forest coverage in the
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BiodiversityState of BiodiversityNe
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The Government has given legal prot
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Different ways of maintaining biodi
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———.2004. State of the Enviro
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Appendix 4.1: Table continuedMajor
Page 66 and 67: Appendix 4.2: Protected Plant and W
Page 68 and 69: Table A4.2.3: Nepal's Share in Plan
Page 70 and 71: to intense weathering, and percolat
Page 72 and 73: Table 5.5: Water Supply and Water T
Page 74 and 75: Table 5.9: Water Quality of Shallow
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Page 78 and 79: Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR).
Page 80 and 81: Definition, Forms, and UnitsEnergy
Page 82 and 83: Table 6.5: Hydropower PotentialRive
Page 84 and 85: Chilime Hydroelectric Project: An E
Page 86 and 87: load occurs from 6 pm to 9 pm with
Page 88 and 89: assessment of wind energy and lack
Page 90 and 91: Review of Dams and Development by t
Page 92 and 93: IUCNElizabeth Khaka, UNEP-NairobiRu
Page 94 and 95: therefore reflect the three guiding
Page 96 and 97: is a seasonal dust storm. Anthropog
Page 98 and 99: Figure 7.3: Average Air Quality, Ja
Page 100 and 101: matter, hydrocarbons, and NO x (Nae
Page 102 and 103: Figure: 7.9: Vehicle Registered in
Page 104 and 105: Brick Kilnchlorofluorocarbons (HCFC
Page 106 and 107: Climate ChangeA region’s climate
Page 108 and 109: Figure 7.14: Mean Annual Precipitat
Page 110 and 111: Table 7.3: National Ambient Air Qua
Page 112 and 113: India. Available: http://www.cleana
Page 114 and 115: ———.1999. “Ambient Air Qual
Page 118 and 119: Table 8.1: Criteria for Urban Statu
Page 120 and 121: accommodate the rapidly increasing
Page 122 and 123: managing solid waste. They are part
Page 124 and 125: In most municipalities, hazardous w
Page 126 and 127: in worsening public health conditio
Page 128 and 129: objects of archaeological, historic
Page 130 and 131: Min BajracharyaB. PradhanVehicles a
Page 132 and 133: Department of Health Services (DOHS
Page 134 and 135: Table 9.1 describes the major highl
Page 136 and 137: the period to up 2017. The document
Page 138 and 139: earthquakes; and awareness raising
Page 140 and 141: Sub-regional LinkagesOther developi
Page 142 and 143: Figure 9.1: The Key Environmental I
Page 144 and 145: (iv)(v)(vi)plants, and other non-ti
Page 146 and 147: environmental governance can be bet
Page 148 and 149: can vary considerably. Both sides h
Page 150 and 151: Dhungel, D.N., and A.B. Rajbhandari
Page 152 and 153: Table A9.1.2: Industry-Specific Tol
Page 154 and 155: . Cultural Heritage8. Convention fo
Page 156 and 157: Appendix 9.3: Some Prominent Enviro
Page 158 and 159: Some funding arrangements made by t
Page 160 and 161: (NARDF 2004) for a period of 1 to 3
Page 162 and 163: Table 10.2: Annual Income and Expen
Page 164 and 165: Table 10.4: Users’ Share in Benef
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From Hands Around Everest bookFrom
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Table 10.8: Subsidy Rate for Biogas
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microorganism communities and the n
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subsidies (Mason 1996). All these a
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addressed only part of the problem.
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historical practice of community-ma
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moved or relocated. The fact that s
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Kathmandu Valley and receives a lar
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cooperative ventures provided neith
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further poaching has not been repor
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http://www.pugwash.org/reports/pac/
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United Nations. 2003. World Populat
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how other countries with substantia
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(i) Broad-based and sustainable eco
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Although progress is encouraging, m
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Nepal’s Changing Pattern of Trade
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Table 12.2: Trade/ GDP RatiosFY1981
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Table 12.5: Percentage Share of Maj
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well as other provisions in specifi
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Future Implications for NepalIncrea
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International Trade Forum (ITN). 20
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- Gross domestic product per unit e
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Time Series InformationGenerally tw
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Table 13.1a: Different Datasets Col
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elevant due to its multidisciplinar
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Figure 13.6: Examples of Applicatio
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Judith DobmannThere are many source
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———.2003. Mapping Nepal Censu
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sustainable livelihoods requires an
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and haphazard. Population pressures
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issue. These deficiencies stem from
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population must be assessed. MOEST
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Appendix 14.1: List of Key Environm
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(vii) The EIA report approving agen
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Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty a
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Nepal’s Progress Towards the MDGs
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Goal 4: Reduce child mortalityReduc
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