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Kathmandu Valley and receives a large part of thewaste from the two cities of Patan and Kathmandu,as discussed in Chapter 8 of this volume.Paudel (1996) points out that the decline in riverquality has resulted in increasing incidents ofdiarrhea, typhoid, jaundice, cholera, and skindiseases among users, who have few alternatives.Livestock is also affected, but the most serious effecthas been the loss of almost all the aquatic life of theriver.The Melamchi Project has been undertaken tomeet the long-term needs of Kathmandu Valley. Theproject has been under construction for the past fewyears and is already embroiled in many conflicts(Siwakoti-Chinton 2003). Local people complain thatthe project has adversely affected many areas oflivelihood and food security. It does not address thedry-season water needs of the people, and there areoutstanding issues of compensation andresettlement.Groundwater mining has been an importantsource of supply in Kathmandu Valley and otherurban areas in the plains. The long-term implicationsof pumping excessive groundwater in the Valley havenot been studied. Harvesting this resource requiressubstantial investment, and clearly the poor cannotafford it. With decreasing levels of groundwater, thecost of accessing it has also increased. At differentplaces it is rich in mineral contents that may beharmful to health. Using it with poor treatment is ahealth hazard for many. The fact that it is not properlyregulated or its exploitation properly guided is amajor gap that needs to be corrected before aserious problem occurs (Pradhan 1999; CBS 2004).National Debate on Water ProjectsWater projects used to be considered simple andstraightforward engineering decisions. Today waterprojects are being screened carefully for theireconomic, social, and environmental effects. Eventhose affected people who had been silentspectators in the past are taking leading roles inasserting their rights in project decision making andmanagement, advocating for adequate compensationif affected adversely (Chintan undated).Nepal is a country with substantial waterresources and huge potential for developing them.While all agree about the untapped potential, there isincreasing controversy about future development(Bandyopadhyay and Gyawali 1994; Dixit 1994;Pandey 1994). The position favored by theGovernment and private-sector developers is thatlarge-scale projects offer multiple opportunities forflood control, irrigation development, andhydropower development. Many of these benefitsaccrue to downstream areas and urban centers,along with possibilities for export. The benefitstreams are projected to be fairly substantial,although the costs of such projects are alsoextremely large—quite often impossible to meetwithout outside funding.Global experience on dams and developmenthas concluded that past projects have not been aseconomically, socially, or environmentally sound asthey were originally made out to be (Dixit et al. 2005).In the context of mountain areas such as Nepal,large-scale projects (i) have high unit costs (Pandey1994), (ii) have directly and indirectly displaced hugenumbers of people and failed to provide adequatecompensation (Dixit 1994), (iii) dams haveexperienced high levels of sedimentation and largescaledams in mountains may be risky because ofhigh seismic activity, and (iv) these dams have veryoften neglected to help the people in the project areaitself (Bandyopadhyay and Gyawali 1994).In large projects, the entire exercise of planningand implementation is not transparent and once theproject starts moving ahead, it appears to beunaccountable to anyone (Chintan undated). Downstreamareas and even countries are not willing topay for the increased water available in lean seasonsbecause of reservoirs (Pandey 1994). Much time hasbeen wasted over big dams with few results.Paranjapye (1994) had this to say in the case ofthe Arun 3 project: “a juggernaut that will inevitablydistort, undermine and prevent the process ofplanning and decision making”. He proposed thealternatives of going small, with a decentralizedsystem, encouraging local entrepreneurs. There willbe larger local benefit through lesser displacementsand reduced construction periods and earlier flow ofbenefits (Pandey 1985). Even smaller systems cansupply the electric grid.Clearly the odds against large dams areincreasing, but that model retains its advocates andon a case by case basis large dams may bewarranted sometimes. The issues of scale are clearlyrelative based on what a country can afford and whatis realistic in terms of socioeconomic andenvironmental conditions (Dixit et al. 2005). Themost important implications of this development arethat the debate has forced projects to be far morecareful in considering many different parameters,including the voice of those who will be displaced.There is also an urgent need for greater transparency,and participation of all stakeholders.Nepal–India Differences over WaterProjectsAlthough agreements on water projects were signedto develop the Kosi (1954) and the Gandak (1959),and both projects were completed, these bilateral166 Environment Assessment of Nepal : Emerging Issues and Challenges
Lakhpa Norbu SherpaMin BajracharyaSources and solutions of environmental conflict: clockwise from top left-collecting medicinal plants; communityforest user group; poachers in Sagarmatha National Park; queuing for waterBrian Peniston J. Gabriel CampbellChapter 11: Environment and Conflict: A Review of Nepal’s Experience167
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About the OrganisationsAsian Develo
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© 2006 International Centre for In
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AcknowledgementsWe would like to ex
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PM2.5PAHRSSAARCSACEPSEASO 2TSPUKUND
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Chapter 6: Energy Resources 65Intro
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List of FiguresFigure 2.1: People a
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Table 6.1: Energy Consumption and P
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forests are also used for infrastru
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as data gathered by different agenc
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Table 2.1: Population Growth Rates
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mortality rates for rural and urban
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Agglomeration village in the centra
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soil erosion, and depletion of wate
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provision remains inadequate becaus
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Malnutrition remains a serious obst
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Table 2.24: Existing and Projected
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Table 2.28: Income Poverty Indicato
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Table 2.31: Change in Employment St
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In 2004, the average annual househo
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Mountain areas have the most food i
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Schaffner, U. 1987. “Road Constru
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Table 3.1: Agricultural Economic De
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Table 3.4: Estimated Soil Erosion R
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B. PradhanImpacts of land degradati
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Carson, B. 1985. “Erosion and Sed
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The trend of forest coverage in the
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BiodiversityState of BiodiversityNe
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The Government has given legal prot
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Different ways of maintaining biodi
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———.2004. State of the Enviro
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Appendix 4.1: Table continuedMajor
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Appendix 4.2: Protected Plant and W
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Table A4.2.3: Nepal's Share in Plan
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to intense weathering, and percolat
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Table 5.5: Water Supply and Water T
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Table 5.9: Water Quality of Shallow
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species are reported to be endanger
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Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR).
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Definition, Forms, and UnitsEnergy
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Table 6.5: Hydropower PotentialRive
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Chilime Hydroelectric Project: An E
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load occurs from 6 pm to 9 pm with
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assessment of wind energy and lack
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Review of Dams and Development by t
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IUCNElizabeth Khaka, UNEP-NairobiRu
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therefore reflect the three guiding
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is a seasonal dust storm. Anthropog
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Figure 7.3: Average Air Quality, Ja
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matter, hydrocarbons, and NO x (Nae
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Figure: 7.9: Vehicle Registered in
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Brick Kilnchlorofluorocarbons (HCFC
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Climate ChangeA region’s climate
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Figure 7.14: Mean Annual Precipitat
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Table 7.3: National Ambient Air Qua
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India. Available: http://www.cleana
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———.1999. “Ambient Air Qual
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Appendix 7.1: World Health Organiza
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Table 8.1: Criteria for Urban Statu
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accommodate the rapidly increasing
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managing solid waste. They are part
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In most municipalities, hazardous w
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in worsening public health conditio
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objects of archaeological, historic
Page 130 and 131: Min BajracharyaB. PradhanVehicles a
Page 132 and 133: Department of Health Services (DOHS
Page 134 and 135: Table 9.1 describes the major highl
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Page 138 and 139: earthquakes; and awareness raising
Page 140 and 141: Sub-regional LinkagesOther developi
Page 142 and 143: Figure 9.1: The Key Environmental I
Page 144 and 145: (iv)(v)(vi)plants, and other non-ti
Page 146 and 147: environmental governance can be bet
Page 148 and 149: can vary considerably. Both sides h
Page 150 and 151: Dhungel, D.N., and A.B. Rajbhandari
Page 152 and 153: Table A9.1.2: Industry-Specific Tol
Page 154 and 155: . Cultural Heritage8. Convention fo
Page 156 and 157: Appendix 9.3: Some Prominent Enviro
Page 158 and 159: Some funding arrangements made by t
Page 160 and 161: (NARDF 2004) for a period of 1 to 3
Page 162 and 163: Table 10.2: Annual Income and Expen
Page 164 and 165: Table 10.4: Users’ Share in Benef
Page 166 and 167: From Hands Around Everest bookFrom
Page 168 and 169: Table 10.8: Subsidy Rate for Biogas
Page 170 and 171: microorganism communities and the n
Page 172 and 173: subsidies (Mason 1996). All these a
Page 174 and 175: addressed only part of the problem.
Page 176 and 177: historical practice of community-ma
Page 178 and 179: moved or relocated. The fact that s
Page 182 and 183: cooperative ventures provided neith
Page 184 and 185: further poaching has not been repor
Page 186 and 187: http://www.pugwash.org/reports/pac/
Page 188 and 189: United Nations. 2003. World Populat
Page 190 and 191: how other countries with substantia
Page 192 and 193: (i) Broad-based and sustainable eco
Page 194 and 195: Although progress is encouraging, m
Page 196 and 197: Nepal’s Changing Pattern of Trade
Page 198 and 199: Table 12.2: Trade/ GDP RatiosFY1981
Page 200 and 201: Table 12.5: Percentage Share of Maj
Page 202 and 203: well as other provisions in specifi
Page 204 and 205: Future Implications for NepalIncrea
Page 206 and 207: International Trade Forum (ITN). 20
Page 208 and 209: - Gross domestic product per unit e
Page 210 and 211: Time Series InformationGenerally tw
Page 212 and 213: Table 13.1a: Different Datasets Col
Page 214 and 215: elevant due to its multidisciplinar
Page 216 and 217: Figure 13.6: Examples of Applicatio
Page 218 and 219: Judith DobmannThere are many source
Page 220 and 221: ———.2003. Mapping Nepal Censu
Page 222 and 223: sustainable livelihoods requires an
Page 224 and 225: and haphazard. Population pressures
Page 226 and 227: issue. These deficiencies stem from
Page 228 and 229: population must be assessed. MOEST
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Appendix 14.1: List of Key Environm
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(vii) The EIA report approving agen
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Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty a
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Nepal’s Progress Towards the MDGs
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Goal 4: Reduce child mortalityReduc
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