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Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR). 1999. Assessment ofWater Resources and Water Demand by UserSectors in Nepal. Kathmandu.National Planning Commission (NPC). 1992. Eighth Plan(1992–1997). Kathmandu.———.1997. Ninth Plan (1997–2002). Kathmandu.———.2002. Tenth Plan (2002–2007). Kathmandu.Nepal Living Standards Survey (NLSS). 2004. Nepal LivingStandards Survey 2003/2004: Statistical Report,Volumes 1 and 2. Kathmandu: His Majesty’sGovernment of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics.Nepal Red Cross Society (NRCS). 2003. Assessment of theEffects of NRCS Arsenic Mitigation Measures on theHealth of Arsenicosis Patients in Four TeraiDistricts—Nawalparasi, Parsa, Bara, and Rautahat—Nepal. Kathmandu: Environment and Public HealthOrganization/ Nepal Red Cross Society/Japan RedCross Society.Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC). 1999. WaterSupply and Coverage in Urban Area of Nepal.Kathmandu.———. 2000. Annual Report. Kathmandu.———. 2001. Annual Report. Kathmandu.Pradhan., B. 1998. “Water Quality Assessment of theBagmati River and its Tributaries, Kathmandu Valley,Nepal.” Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University ofNatural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna.Pradhan., B. 2000. “Assessing Drinking Water Quality inKathmandu Valley, Nepal.” Health Prospect NewVision for New Century Vol. 2 No. 2, Nepal PublicHealth Society/Institute of Medicine, Kathmandu.Rai, K. 2004. Hydropower Development in Nepal—LocalResponses to Technology and Formal Institution.Available: http://www.tropentag.de/2004/abstracts/full/176.pdfRural Water Supply and Sanitation Project (RWSSP). 1999.RWSSP Rural Water Supply and Sanitation ProjectPhases I, II and III. Kathmandu: His Majesty’sGovernment of Nepal, Ministry of LocalDevelopment.Sharma. S. 1998. An Inventory of the Aquatic Insects ofNepal Used as Bio-indicators of Water Pollution.Kathmandu: University Grants Commission.Shrestha, T.K. 1999. “Overview on Fish.” In Nepal CountryReport on Biological Diversity, pp. 52–59, edited byT.B. Shrestha. Kathmandu: The World ConservationUnion (IUCN). Available:http://www.biodiversityasia.org/bpsp/images/listof~2.docSijapati, S., B. Pradhan, and U. Parajuli. 2004. IrrigationStrategy for Nepal in the Context of Arsenic Threat:Preliminary Perspectives from the Narayani IrrigationCommand Area. Rome: Food and AgricultureOrganization.Stanley. 1994. Report on the Bagmati Basin WaterManagement Strategy and Investment Program.Kathmandu: Stanley International/Mott-Macdonald/EAST Consultant.Sukraraj Tropical Infectious Disease Hospital (STIDH).2004. Records of Waterborne Disease 2004.Kathmandu.United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 2001.Nepal: State of Environment 2001. Bangkok: UnitedNations Environment Programme, RegionalResource Center for Asia Pacific.Upreti, B.R. 2004. “Resource Conflicts and ConflictResolution in Nepal.” Mountain Research andDevelopment 24(1): 60–66.Uprety, B.K. 2003. Environmental Impact Assessment:Process and Practice. Kathmandu: ShikharSamundra Offset.Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS). 1999.Annual Report 1999. Kathmandu.———.2004. “National Water Plan.” Draft report, Water andEnergy Commission Secretariat, Kathmandu.World Health Organisation (WHO). 1996. Guidelines forDrinking Water Quality: Health Criteria and OtherSupporting Information. Geneva.64 Environment Assessment of Nepal : Emerging Issues and Challenges
Chapter 6Energy ResourcesIntroductionThe availability and use of energy is necessaryfor survival and prosperity. It is basic to anysociety’s development and economic growth.Energy is used for many purposes in daily life and inthe process of social and economic development,and the amount of energy consumed is an indicatorof level of development and standard of living. Grossnational income per capita is higher where percapita energy consumption is also higher. Thisindicates the link between prosperity and energy usein the present world—rich countries use a lot ofenergy. Nepal’s per capita energy consumption isone of the lowest in the world as well as in SouthAsia, reflecting the low level of development andprosperity (Table 6.1).Expanding economic activity and populationgrowth are the two basic factors behind increases inenergy consumption. In a country like Nepal, whereeconomic growth is necessary and populationgrowth is high, energy demand will continue to risein the years to come. Energy consumption patternsand the rise in demand, their sources, and ways inwhich they are harnessed and utilized haveimplications for the environment and naturalresources, which ultimately affect overalldevelopment.Sources and Consumption PatternsSourcesNepal’s energy supply is primarily based on threesources.Traditional (biomass). This includes fuelwood,agricultural residues, and animal waste. Biomass isthe traditional source of energy in Nepalese society,which is predominantly rural and agricultural. Peoplein rural areas do not have to pay for biomass—it iseither available free from nature (fuelwood collectedfrom a nearby forest) or is a byproduct of agriculturalactivities (agricultural residues and animal dung). Inthe past, there was an abundant supply of biomassfrom the forest and agricultural activities. TheTable 6.1: Energy Consumption and Per Capita IncomeCategoryGNI($)Energy UsePer Capita(kg oilequivalent)ElectricPowerConsumptionPer Capita(kWh)World Average 5,120 1,686 2,159South Asia Average 460 469 331Countries in Different Income GroupsLow Income 430 5<strong>18</strong> 317Middle Income 1,850 1,339 1,447High Income 26,490 5,423 8,421Selected CountriesNorway 38,730 5,896 24,881Switzerland 36,170 3,875 7,474United States 35,400 7,996 11,714Japan 34,010 4,099 7,237United Kingdom 25,510 3,982 5,653Singapore 20,690 7,058 7,178China, People’sRepublic of960 896 893India 470 515 365Bangladesh 380 153 94Nepal 230 357 61kg = kilogram, kWh = kilo watt-hour, GNI = gr oss national incomeNote: GNI per capita is gross national product (GNP) divided by population.Source: IBRD/WB (2004)situation has been changing in recent times due toincreases in population, long-term decline in forestareas (despite recent increases), and rising demandfor energy. Biomass is becoming scarce and biomasssources are under increasing pressure, withpotentially adverse consequences on agriculture andthe environment. However, rural people continue touse biomass as an energy source because they haveno other options and they do not have to pay for it.Commercial. Commercial energy, also knownas conventional energy, is traded in the market and inNepal this comprises coal, electricity suppliedthrough the national grid, and petroleum products.Hydropower is the main source of electricity inNepal.Chapter 6: Energy Resources65
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About the OrganisationsAsian Develo
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© 2006 International Centre for In
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AcknowledgementsWe would like to ex
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PM2.5PAHRSSAARCSACEPSEASO 2TSPUKUND
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Chapter 6: Energy Resources 65Intro
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List of FiguresFigure 2.1: People a
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Table 6.1: Energy Consumption and P
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forests are also used for infrastru
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as data gathered by different agenc
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Table 2.1: Population Growth Rates
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mortality rates for rural and urban
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Agglomeration village in the centra
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soil erosion, and depletion of wate
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Page 32 and 33: Malnutrition remains a serious obst
Page 34 and 35: Table 2.24: Existing and Projected
Page 36 and 37: Table 2.28: Income Poverty Indicato
Page 38 and 39: Table 2.31: Change in Employment St
Page 40 and 41: In 2004, the average annual househo
Page 42 and 43: Mountain areas have the most food i
Page 44 and 45: Schaffner, U. 1987. “Road Constru
Page 46 and 47: Table 3.1: Agricultural Economic De
Page 48 and 49: Table 3.4: Estimated Soil Erosion R
Page 50 and 51: B. PradhanImpacts of land degradati
Page 52 and 53: Carson, B. 1985. “Erosion and Sed
Page 54 and 55: The trend of forest coverage in the
Page 56 and 57: BiodiversityState of BiodiversityNe
Page 58 and 59: The Government has given legal prot
Page 60 and 61: Different ways of maintaining biodi
Page 62 and 63: ———.2004. State of the Enviro
Page 64 and 65: Appendix 4.1: Table continuedMajor
Page 66 and 67: Appendix 4.2: Protected Plant and W
Page 68 and 69: Table A4.2.3: Nepal's Share in Plan
Page 70 and 71: to intense weathering, and percolat
Page 72 and 73: Table 5.5: Water Supply and Water T
Page 74 and 75: Table 5.9: Water Quality of Shallow
Page 76 and 77: species are reported to be endanger
Page 80 and 81: Definition, Forms, and UnitsEnergy
Page 82 and 83: Table 6.5: Hydropower PotentialRive
Page 84 and 85: Chilime Hydroelectric Project: An E
Page 86 and 87: load occurs from 6 pm to 9 pm with
Page 88 and 89: assessment of wind energy and lack
Page 90 and 91: Review of Dams and Development by t
Page 92 and 93: IUCNElizabeth Khaka, UNEP-NairobiRu
Page 94 and 95: therefore reflect the three guiding
Page 96 and 97: is a seasonal dust storm. Anthropog
Page 98 and 99: Figure 7.3: Average Air Quality, Ja
Page 100 and 101: matter, hydrocarbons, and NO x (Nae
Page 102 and 103: Figure: 7.9: Vehicle Registered in
Page 104 and 105: Brick Kilnchlorofluorocarbons (HCFC
Page 106 and 107: Climate ChangeA region’s climate
Page 108 and 109: Figure 7.14: Mean Annual Precipitat
Page 110 and 111: Table 7.3: National Ambient Air Qua
Page 112 and 113: India. Available: http://www.cleana
Page 114 and 115: ———.1999. “Ambient Air Qual
Page 116 and 117: Appendix 7.1: World Health Organiza
Page 118 and 119: Table 8.1: Criteria for Urban Statu
Page 120 and 121: accommodate the rapidly increasing
Page 122 and 123: managing solid waste. They are part
Page 124 and 125: In most municipalities, hazardous w
Page 126 and 127: in worsening public health conditio
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objects of archaeological, historic
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Min BajracharyaB. PradhanVehicles a
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Department of Health Services (DOHS
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Table 9.1 describes the major highl
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the period to up 2017. The document
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earthquakes; and awareness raising
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Sub-regional LinkagesOther developi
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Figure 9.1: The Key Environmental I
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(iv)(v)(vi)plants, and other non-ti
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environmental governance can be bet
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can vary considerably. Both sides h
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Dhungel, D.N., and A.B. Rajbhandari
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Table A9.1.2: Industry-Specific Tol
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. Cultural Heritage8. Convention fo
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Appendix 9.3: Some Prominent Enviro
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Some funding arrangements made by t
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(NARDF 2004) for a period of 1 to 3
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Table 10.2: Annual Income and Expen
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Table 10.4: Users’ Share in Benef
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From Hands Around Everest bookFrom
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Table 10.8: Subsidy Rate for Biogas
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microorganism communities and the n
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subsidies (Mason 1996). All these a
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addressed only part of the problem.
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historical practice of community-ma
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moved or relocated. The fact that s
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Kathmandu Valley and receives a lar
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cooperative ventures provided neith
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further poaching has not been repor
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http://www.pugwash.org/reports/pac/
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United Nations. 2003. World Populat
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how other countries with substantia
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(i) Broad-based and sustainable eco
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Although progress is encouraging, m
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Nepal’s Changing Pattern of Trade
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Table 12.2: Trade/ GDP RatiosFY1981
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Table 12.5: Percentage Share of Maj
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well as other provisions in specifi
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Future Implications for NepalIncrea
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International Trade Forum (ITN). 20
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- Gross domestic product per unit e
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Time Series InformationGenerally tw
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Table 13.1a: Different Datasets Col
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elevant due to its multidisciplinar
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Figure 13.6: Examples of Applicatio
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Judith DobmannThere are many source
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———.2003. Mapping Nepal Censu
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sustainable livelihoods requires an
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and haphazard. Population pressures
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issue. These deficiencies stem from
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population must be assessed. MOEST
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Appendix 14.1: List of Key Environm
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(vii) The EIA report approving agen
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Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty a
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Nepal’s Progress Towards the MDGs
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Goal 4: Reduce child mortalityReduc
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