ADB_book_18 April.qxp - Himalayan Document Centre - icimod

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species are reported to be endangered, five speciesthreatened, and seven species restricted in theGandaki River, west Nepal (Shrestha 1999). Over 100dolphins (Platanista gangetica) were sightedrecently in the Karnali River in western Nepal andaround 20 more at the confluence of the Pathariyaand Mohana rivers, the tributaries of the KarnaliRiver, which lies 12 km southwest of Tikapur (Kailalidistrict) in the western Terai region (MOFSC 2002).The indigenous fish stocks have been decliningdue to over-fishing, harmful fishing practices(electro-fishing, dynamiting, use of chemicals),pollution, and development work (Shrestha 1999).Development works like river damming orhydropower projects have major impacts on riverecology and aquatic flora and fauna. TheGovernment has made environmental impactassessments (EIAs) compulsory since 1993 under theEIA National Guidelines for all hydroelectric projectsabove 5 MW.Compared with fish, there are very few studieson characteristic features of aquatic insects in Nepal.It is not yet known how many aquatic insects andanimals are threatened or extinct.There is a close association between quality ofwater and abundance and type of aquatic animals. Ingeneral, as the intensity of organic pollutionincreases the diversity of animals decreases andsensitive organisms are replaced by pollutiontolerantanimals. The rivers of Nepal flow throughdiverse geographic environments and possess avariety of aquatic macro-invertebrate species. Mostof them are pollution indicators and can be used todetermine the quality of river water. The diversity andabundance of benthic macro-invertebrates indicatesthe specific characteristic features of different sites ofa river. As the quality of a water body changes, theaquatic macro-invertebrates in that particular areaTable 5.11: Aquatic Macro -invertebrates inKathmandu Valley and the CountryNumberAquatic Macro -invertebrateKathmandu NepalColeoptera 15 <strong>18</strong>1Diptera 55 202Ephemeroptera 33 29Megaloptera 1 —Odonata 5 2Oligochaeta 5 —Trichoptera 14 59Gastropoda 7 —Heteroptera 7 —Plecoptera 9 67Hirudinea 2 —— = not availableSource: Pradhan (1998); Sharma (1998)will also change. They are either washed away or diedepending upon their sensitivity to pollution.Therefore, benthic macro-invertebrates are veryimportant in terms of classifying the quality of awater body. For example, the headwater region ofthe Bagmati River and its tributaries in KathmanduValley are rich in aquatic biodiversity, but poor wherethe rivers flow through the core city area because oforganic pollution. Table 5.11 shows the comparativepicture of aquatic macro-invertebrates inKathmandu Valley and Nepal as a whole. Thisinformation can provide a baseline for future studiesfor comparison in terms of decrease or increase inthe types of taxa, although as yet, no efforts are beingmade in this direction.Efforts in Water Supply andSanitation Improvement andManagementAttempts by government, nongovernment,community, and private organizations are underwayto better develop, manage, conserve, and utilizewater resources in Nepal, either through indigenousefforts or through economic and technical assistancefrom international and bilateral agencies. Two majorefforts are noteworthy.(i) The Water Resources Act 1992 is of greatsignificance, as it vests ownership of all waterresources with the State. Private ownership isdisregarded. The Act has appropriately recognizeddrinking water as the first priority in terms of order ofuse, followed by irrigation, farming enterprises likeanimal husbandry and fisheries, hydroelectricpower, cottage industry, water transport, and others.(ii) The National Water Resources Strategy 2002aims at developing and managing water resourcesfor sustainable use, while ensuring conservation andprotection of the environment in a holistic andsystematic manner. The strategy not only takes intoaccount water uses such as hydropower andirrigation but also recognizes other uses in areassuch as tourism and fisheries. The current Tenth Plan(2002–2007) considers the river basin approach asthe basis for the development and management oflarge rivers.Drinking water is the basic minimum need of allhuman beings. Provision of convenient, safe, andadequate drinking water is the declaredcommitment of His Majesty’s Government of Nepal.The Tenth Plan document states a goal of meeting85% of the total water demand by the end of the planperiod (2007) with gradual improvements in servicelevels, providing appropriate sanitation services in62 Environment Assessment of Nepal : Emerging Issues and Challenges
ural and urban areas through community awarenessprograms, and reducing infant mortality by bringingabout a reduction in water-related diseases. Thefollowing efforts are underway to increase people’saccess to drinking water: (i) Rainwater harvestingprograms in feasible areas; (ii) Community basedwater supply and sanitation sector projects,particularly in the mid and far-western regions; (iii)Rural water supply project and water resourcesmanagement programs by national and internationalNGOs in different areas; (iv) Community based ruralwater supply and sanitation programs; (v) A smalltown water supply and sanitation program; (vi) Awater quality improvement program; and (vii) Asanitation education and hygiene promotionprogram.In addition, the Irrigation Policy 2003 hasadopted many significant initiatives to exploitgroundwater for irrigation, particularly in the Terairegion. The policy has also addressed the issue ofarsenic contamination in groundwater used forirrigation.Analyzing the National Water Supply SectorPolicy’s objectives, policies, and programs related todrinking water leads to several observations. First,they emphasize enlarging the drinking watercoverage, but mere emphasis will not be adequateunless the quality (potable) and quantity (per capita)aspects of drinking water are considered. These twoaspects of water are vital in terms of health andsanitation. Second, the health and sanitationeducation program to reduce water-related diseaseswill not be effective unless the water sector defines aNepalese potable water standard. Further, the livingstandards of general rural communities must beraised by providing income-generating activities. Thiswill enable them to pay ever-increasing water andsanitation tariffs. However, this issue is not onlyrelevant to the drinking water sector, but interlinkedwith many other sectors related to water, sanitation,and health. It requires a coordinated effort to bemade at national, sub-national, and local levelsbecause water-related diseases relate to all of them.BibliographyBanskota M., and S.R. Chalise. 2000. Water of Life:Perspectives of Water Harvesting in the HKH.Kathmandu: International <strong>Centre</strong> for IntegratedMountain Development.Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). 1998. A Compendium onEnvironment Statistics 1998. Kathmandu.———.2002. Population Census 2001. Kathmandu.CEMAT. 2000. “Report on Surface Water Quality MonitoringWorks of Kathmandu Valley.” Urban Water SupplyReforms in the Kathmandu Valley Project,Kathmandu.Chaudhari, R.P., and R.L. Singh. 1996. Flora of the TeraiRegion of Nepal: with Particular Emphasis onWetlands. Kathmandu: The World ConservationUnion (IUCN).Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM). 1998.Hydrological Record of Nepal: Stream FlowSummary. Kathmandu.Department of Health Services (DOHS). 1996. AnnualReport 1994/1995. Kathmandu.———.1999. Annual Report 1997/1998. Kathmandu.———.2003. Annual Report 2001/2002. Kathmandu.———.2005. Annual Report 2003/2004. Kathmandu.Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS). 2002.A Study on Health Effects of Arsenic ContaminatedDrinking Water in Terai Districts, Nepal. Kathmandu:Environment and Public Health Organization/HisMajesty’s Government of Nepal, DWSS/UnitedNations Children’s Fund.Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO).1990. Water Quality Assessment for Terai TubewellProject. Kathmandu.Environment and Public Health Organization(ENPHO)/Welink/Ministry of Population andEnvironment (MOPE). 2002. State of Rural Energy inthe Mountains, Nepal. Kathmandu.Gyawali, D. 2001. Water in Nepal. Kathmandu: HimalBooks.IUCN (The World Conservation Union). 1997. Koshi TappuWetlands: Nepal’s Ramsar Site. Kathmandu.———.2000. Conservation Status of Siwalik Area of IlamDistrict. Kathmandu.Joshi, A.R., and D.P. Joshi. 1991. “Endemic Plants of NepalHimalaya: Conservation, Status, and FutureDirection.” Mountain Environment and Development1(2): 1–35.Metcalf and Eddy. 2000. “Groundwater and Wastewater.”Seminar Paper prepared for the Melamchi WaterSupply Development Board, Kathmandu.Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative (MOAC). 2002.Statistical Information on Nepalese Agriculture2001/2002. Kathmandu.Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation (MOFSC). 2002.Nepal Biodiversity Strategy. Kathmandu.Ministry of Population and Environment (MOPE)/Renewable Energy Development Programme(REDP). 2002. State of Rural Energy in the Mountains,Nepal-2002. Kathmandu: His Majesty’s Governmentof Nepal, Ministry of Population and Environmentand United Nations Development Programme, RuralEnergy Development Programme.Chapter 5: Water Resources63
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About the OrganisationsAsian Develo
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© 2006 International Centre for In
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AcknowledgementsWe would like to ex
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PM2.5PAHRSSAARCSACEPSEASO 2TSPUKUND
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Chapter 6: Energy Resources 65Intro
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List of FiguresFigure 2.1: People a
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Table 6.1: Energy Consumption and P
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forests are also used for infrastru
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as data gathered by different agenc
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Table 2.1: Population Growth Rates
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mortality rates for rural and urban
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Agglomeration village in the centra
Page 26 and 27: soil erosion, and depletion of wate
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Page 32 and 33: Malnutrition remains a serious obst
Page 34 and 35: Table 2.24: Existing and Projected
Page 36 and 37: Table 2.28: Income Poverty Indicato
Page 38 and 39: Table 2.31: Change in Employment St
Page 40 and 41: In 2004, the average annual househo
Page 42 and 43: Mountain areas have the most food i
Page 44 and 45: Schaffner, U. 1987. “Road Constru
Page 46 and 47: Table 3.1: Agricultural Economic De
Page 48 and 49: Table 3.4: Estimated Soil Erosion R
Page 50 and 51: B. PradhanImpacts of land degradati
Page 52 and 53: Carson, B. 1985. “Erosion and Sed
Page 54 and 55: The trend of forest coverage in the
Page 56 and 57: BiodiversityState of BiodiversityNe
Page 58 and 59: The Government has given legal prot
Page 60 and 61: Different ways of maintaining biodi
Page 62 and 63: ———.2004. State of the Enviro
Page 64 and 65: Appendix 4.1: Table continuedMajor
Page 66 and 67: Appendix 4.2: Protected Plant and W
Page 68 and 69: Table A4.2.3: Nepal's Share in Plan
Page 70 and 71: to intense weathering, and percolat
Page 72 and 73: Table 5.5: Water Supply and Water T
Page 74 and 75: Table 5.9: Water Quality of Shallow
Page 78 and 79: Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR).
Page 80 and 81: Definition, Forms, and UnitsEnergy
Page 82 and 83: Table 6.5: Hydropower PotentialRive
Page 84 and 85: Chilime Hydroelectric Project: An E
Page 86 and 87: load occurs from 6 pm to 9 pm with
Page 88 and 89: assessment of wind energy and lack
Page 90 and 91: Review of Dams and Development by t
Page 92 and 93: IUCNElizabeth Khaka, UNEP-NairobiRu
Page 94 and 95: therefore reflect the three guiding
Page 96 and 97: is a seasonal dust storm. Anthropog
Page 98 and 99: Figure 7.3: Average Air Quality, Ja
Page 100 and 101: matter, hydrocarbons, and NO x (Nae
Page 102 and 103: Figure: 7.9: Vehicle Registered in
Page 104 and 105: Brick Kilnchlorofluorocarbons (HCFC
Page 106 and 107: Climate ChangeA region’s climate
Page 108 and 109: Figure 7.14: Mean Annual Precipitat
Page 110 and 111: Table 7.3: National Ambient Air Qua
Page 112 and 113: India. Available: http://www.cleana
Page 114 and 115: ———.1999. “Ambient Air Qual
Page 116 and 117: Appendix 7.1: World Health Organiza
Page 118 and 119: Table 8.1: Criteria for Urban Statu
Page 120 and 121: accommodate the rapidly increasing
Page 122 and 123: managing solid waste. They are part
Page 124 and 125: In most municipalities, hazardous w
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in worsening public health conditio
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objects of archaeological, historic
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Min BajracharyaB. PradhanVehicles a
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Department of Health Services (DOHS
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Table 9.1 describes the major highl
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the period to up 2017. The document
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earthquakes; and awareness raising
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Sub-regional LinkagesOther developi
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Figure 9.1: The Key Environmental I
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(iv)(v)(vi)plants, and other non-ti
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environmental governance can be bet
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can vary considerably. Both sides h
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Dhungel, D.N., and A.B. Rajbhandari
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Table A9.1.2: Industry-Specific Tol
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. Cultural Heritage8. Convention fo
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Appendix 9.3: Some Prominent Enviro
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Some funding arrangements made by t
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(NARDF 2004) for a period of 1 to 3
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Table 10.2: Annual Income and Expen
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Table 10.4: Users’ Share in Benef
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From Hands Around Everest bookFrom
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Table 10.8: Subsidy Rate for Biogas
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microorganism communities and the n
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subsidies (Mason 1996). All these a
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addressed only part of the problem.
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historical practice of community-ma
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moved or relocated. The fact that s
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Kathmandu Valley and receives a lar
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cooperative ventures provided neith
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further poaching has not been repor
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http://www.pugwash.org/reports/pac/
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United Nations. 2003. World Populat
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how other countries with substantia
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(i) Broad-based and sustainable eco
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Although progress is encouraging, m
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Nepal’s Changing Pattern of Trade
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Table 12.2: Trade/ GDP RatiosFY1981
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Table 12.5: Percentage Share of Maj
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well as other provisions in specifi
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Future Implications for NepalIncrea
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International Trade Forum (ITN). 20
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- Gross domestic product per unit e
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Time Series InformationGenerally tw
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Table 13.1a: Different Datasets Col
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elevant due to its multidisciplinar
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Figure 13.6: Examples of Applicatio
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Judith DobmannThere are many source
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———.2003. Mapping Nepal Censu
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sustainable livelihoods requires an
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and haphazard. Population pressures
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issue. These deficiencies stem from
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population must be assessed. MOEST
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Appendix 14.1: List of Key Environm
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(vii) The EIA report approving agen
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Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty a
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Nepal’s Progress Towards the MDGs
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Goal 4: Reduce child mortalityReduc
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