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Carson, B. 1985. “Erosion and Sedimentation Processes inthe Nepalese Himalaya.” ICIMOD Occasional PaperNo.1, International Centre for Integrated MountainDevelopment, Kathmandu.———.1992. “The Land, the Farmer and the Future—ALand Fertility Management Strategy for Nepal.”ICIMOD Occasional Paper No. 21, InternationalCentre for Integrated Mountain Development,Kathmandu.Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). 1998. A Compendium onEnvironmental Statistics 1998. Kathmandu.———.1999. Statistical Year Book of Nepal. Kathmandu.———.2002. Population Census 2001. Kathmandu.———.2003. Population Monograph of Nepal, Vol. II.Kathmandu.———.2004. Handbook of Environment Statistics 2003.Kathmandu.Department of Forest Resources and Survey (DFRS). 1999.“Forest Resources of Nepal (1987–1998).”Publication No. 74, Department of Forest Resourcesand Survey, Kathmandu.Department of Agriculture (DOA). 1999. Annual Report ofLand Science Programs 1998/1999. Kathmandu.———. 2000. Annual Report of Land Science Programs1999/2000. Kathmandu.Disaster Prevention Training Center (DPTC). 1997. AnnualDisaster Review 1996. Kathmandu: Water InducedDisaster Prevention Centre.Department of Soil Conservation and WatershedManagement (DSCWM). 1999. “Erosion ProcessMonitoring at Tistung of Kulekhani Watershed.”Annual Report 1998, His majesty’s Government ofNepal, Department of Soil Conservation andWatershed Management, Kathmandu.International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD). 1998. “Land Erosion Studies in JhikhuKhola and Yarsha Khola Watershed.” AnnualTechnical Progress Report 1997, His Majesty’sGovernment of Nepal, Department of SoilConservation and Watershed Management andInternational Centre for Integrated MountainDevelopment, Kathmandu.Japan Forest Technology Association (JAFTA). 2001.“Information System Development Project for theManagement of Tropical Forest.” Activity Report ofWide Area Tropical Forest Resources Survey(Kingdom of Nepal), Japan Forest TechnologyAssociation, Kathmandu.Laban, P. 1979. “Landslide Occurrence in Nepal.” IWMWorking Paper 13, Integrated WatershedManagement, Torrent Control and Land UseDevelopment Project, Food and AgricultureOrganization, His Majesty’s Government of Nepal,and United Nations Development Programme,Kathmandu.Land Resource Mapping Project (LRMP). 1986. “LandUtilisation Report.” His Majesty’s Government ofNepal, Survey Department/Land Resource MappingProject, Kathmandu.Mathema, P., K.B. Shrestha, and K.M. Sthapit. 1998.“Community Forest Management in Nepal:Implications for Policy and Human ResourceDevelopment.” Paper presented at the RegionalWorkshop on Participatory Forest Management:Implications for Policy and Human ResourceDevelopment, 7–12 May, The People’s Republic ofChina.Ministry of Agriculture (MOA). 1999. Statistical Informationon Nepalese Agriculture 1998/1999. Kathmandu.———.2002. Statistical Information on NepaleseAgriculture 2000/2001. Kathmandu.Ministry of Finance (MOF). 1999. Economic Survey(FY1998/1999). Kathmandu.Mool, P.K., S.R. Bajracharya, and S.P. Joshi. 2001. Inventoryof Glaciers, Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake OutburstFloods, Monitoring and Early Warning System in theHindu Kush-Himalayan Region. Kathmandu:International Centre for Integrated MountainDevelopment.National Planning Commission (NPC). 1999. Ninth Plan(1997–2002). Kathmandu.Ries, J. 1991. “Man Made Land Erosion in the HighMountain Region: A Case Study of Bamti/Bhandar.”In Land Fertility and Erosion Issues in the MiddleMountains of Nepal, pp. 135–151, edited by P.B. Shah,H. Schreier, S. Brown, and K.W. Riley. Kathmandu:International Centre for Integrated MountainDevelopment and UBC.Trade Promotion Centre (TPC). 1998. Nepal OverseasTrade Statistics. Kathmandu.Tuladhar, B. 1999. Hazardous Waste Management Nepal:Country Report. Kathmandu: World HealthOrganization.Wagley, M.P. 1995. “Status of Watershed Management inNepal.” In The Status of Watershed Management inAsia, edited by P.N. Sharma, and M.P. Wagley.Kathmandu: Food and Agriculture Organization.Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS). 1996.Report on the Investigations of Tsho Rolpa GlacierLake, Rolwaling Valley. Kathmandu: Water andEnergy Commission Secretariat/Japan InternationalCooperation Agency.Wymann, S. 1991. “Land Use Intensification and LandFertility in Agricultural Land: A Case Study in theDhulikhel Khola Watershed.” In Land Fertility andErosion Issues in the Middle Mountains of Nepal, pp.253–259, edited by P.B. Shah, H. Schreier, S. Brown,and K.W. Riley. Kathmandu: International Centre forIntegrated Mountain Development.Zimsky, M. 1999. “National Biodiversity Action Plan.” Draftreport. His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, Ministryof Forest and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu.38 Environment Assessment of Nepal : Emerging Issues and Challenges
Chapter 4Forestry and BiodiversityForestryForest Resources and Their UseThe forest in Nepal is defined as all lands havingtrees with more than 10% crown cover (DFRS1999). Covering 37% of the country’s total area(JAFTA 2000), the forest is, Nepal’s largest naturalresource. Forest types range from sub-tropicalhardwood to softwood. The forest has threeimportant functions: production of goods (firewood,fodder, timber, and herbs), protection of the naturalenvironment, and regulation of atmosphericconditions. Forest production enhances theeconomy of the community, while the protection andregulation functions are concerned with ecologicalconservation.The forest is the principal source of fuelwood.According to the Ministry of Finance (MOF 2003, p.70, Table 10.1), energy consumption in Nepal isexcessively dependent on fuelwood, whichrepresents 75% of the total fuel consumption (8,416thousand tons of oil equivalent). In rural areas woodconsumption exceeds 94% of the total fuelconsumption, compared with 39% in urban areas(see Table 2.5). Terai forests provide most of thisfuelwood since they are easily accessible. Excessiveuse of fuelwood, particularly in rural areas, is due tolack of alternative energy sources. For instance, only2.3% of rural households use kerosene comparedwith 36% of urban households.The forest is also used as grazing land forlivestock. The livestock population including cattle,pigs, goats, and sheep reached 17.6 million head(11,226 livestock units) in 1998 from 14.9 millionhead (9,790 livestock units) in 1985, while the grazingarea (1,757,000 hectares [ha]) has remained more orless constant over the last 20 years (UNEP 2001). Theincreased numbers of livestock mainly depend onforest for grazing.Finally, the forest area has been used forinfrastructural development such as roads, schools,public places, institutional buildings, humansettlements, and so on. More than 120,000 ha offorest have been cleared for infrastructuredevelopment (DFRS 1999).Change and Distribution of Forest AreasAccording to the most recent survey, based onsatellite imagery (JAFTA 2001), the country now has37% forest coverage and 9% shrub area, making up atotal of 46% (Table 4.1). The percentage of total areacovered by forest and shrub is highest in the Hills(50% and 13%), followed for forest by the Terai andthe Mountains. The Hills have 57% of the total forestresources in the country.DeforestationD. JoshiTable 4.1: Distribution of Forest Resources by Region, 2000Forest Shrub Total Forest ResourcesAreaRegion(ha)Area % of Area % of Area % of(ha) region (ha) region (ha) countryMountain 5,181,700 1,181,631 22.8 426,363 8.2 1,607,994 23.7Hill 6,134,500 3,085,885 50.3 771,842 12.6 3,857,727 56.8Terai 3,401,900 1,237,545 36.4 85,026 2.5 1,322,571 19.5Nepal 14,718,100 5,505,061 37.4 1,283,231 8.7 6,788,292 100ha = hectareSource: JAFTA (2001)Chapter 4: Forestry and Biodiversity39
Page 2 and 3: About the OrganisationsAsian Develo
Page 4 and 5: © 2006 International Centre for In
Page 6 and 7: AcknowledgementsWe would like to ex
Page 8 and 9: PM2.5PAHRSSAARCSACEPSEASO 2TSPUKUND
Page 10 and 11: Chapter 6: Energy Resources 65Intro
Page 12 and 13: List of FiguresFigure 2.1: People a
Page 14 and 15: Table 6.1: Energy Consumption and P
Page 16 and 17: forests are also used for infrastru
Page 18 and 19: as data gathered by different agenc
Page 20 and 21: Table 2.1: Population Growth Rates
Page 22 and 23: mortality rates for rural and urban
Page 24 and 25: Agglomeration village in the centra
Page 26 and 27: soil erosion, and depletion of wate
Page 30 and 31: provision remains inadequate becaus
Page 32 and 33: Malnutrition remains a serious obst
Page 34 and 35: Table 2.24: Existing and Projected
Page 36 and 37: Table 2.28: Income Poverty Indicato
Page 38 and 39: Table 2.31: Change in Employment St
Page 40 and 41: In 2004, the average annual househo
Page 42 and 43: Mountain areas have the most food i
Page 44 and 45: Schaffner, U. 1987. “Road Constru
Page 46 and 47: Table 3.1: Agricultural Economic De
Page 48 and 49: Table 3.4: Estimated Soil Erosion R
Page 50 and 51: B. PradhanImpacts of land degradati
Page 54 and 55: The trend of forest coverage in the
Page 56 and 57: BiodiversityState of BiodiversityNe
Page 58 and 59: The Government has given legal prot
Page 60 and 61: Different ways of maintaining biodi
Page 62 and 63: ———.2004. State of the Enviro
Page 64 and 65: Appendix 4.1: Table continuedMajor
Page 66 and 67: Appendix 4.2: Protected Plant and W
Page 68 and 69: Table A4.2.3: Nepal's Share in Plan
Page 70 and 71: to intense weathering, and percolat
Page 72 and 73: Table 5.5: Water Supply and Water T
Page 74 and 75: Table 5.9: Water Quality of Shallow
Page 76 and 77: species are reported to be endanger
Page 78 and 79: Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR).
Page 80 and 81: Definition, Forms, and UnitsEnergy
Page 82 and 83: Table 6.5: Hydropower PotentialRive
Page 84 and 85: Chilime Hydroelectric Project: An E
Page 86 and 87: load occurs from 6 pm to 9 pm with
Page 88 and 89: assessment of wind energy and lack
Page 90 and 91: Review of Dams and Development by t
Page 92 and 93: IUCNElizabeth Khaka, UNEP-NairobiRu
Page 94 and 95: therefore reflect the three guiding
Page 96 and 97: is a seasonal dust storm. Anthropog
Page 98 and 99: Figure 7.3: Average Air Quality, Ja
Page 100 and 101: matter, hydrocarbons, and NO x (Nae
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Figure: 7.9: Vehicle Registered in
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Brick Kilnchlorofluorocarbons (HCFC
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Climate ChangeA region’s climate
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Figure 7.14: Mean Annual Precipitat
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Table 7.3: National Ambient Air Qua
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India. Available: http://www.cleana
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———.1999. “Ambient Air Qual
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Appendix 7.1: World Health Organiza
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Table 8.1: Criteria for Urban Statu
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accommodate the rapidly increasing
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managing solid waste. They are part
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In most municipalities, hazardous w
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in worsening public health conditio
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objects of archaeological, historic
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Min BajracharyaB. PradhanVehicles a
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Department of Health Services (DOHS
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Table 9.1 describes the major highl
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the period to up 2017. The document
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earthquakes; and awareness raising
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Sub-regional LinkagesOther developi
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Figure 9.1: The Key Environmental I
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(iv)(v)(vi)plants, and other non-ti
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environmental governance can be bet
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can vary considerably. Both sides h
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Dhungel, D.N., and A.B. Rajbhandari
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Table A9.1.2: Industry-Specific Tol
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. Cultural Heritage8. Convention fo
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Appendix 9.3: Some Prominent Enviro
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Some funding arrangements made by t
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(NARDF 2004) for a period of 1 to 3
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Table 10.2: Annual Income and Expen
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Table 10.4: Users’ Share in Benef
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From Hands Around Everest bookFrom
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Table 10.8: Subsidy Rate for Biogas
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microorganism communities and the n
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subsidies (Mason 1996). All these a
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addressed only part of the problem.
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historical practice of community-ma
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moved or relocated. The fact that s
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Kathmandu Valley and receives a lar
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cooperative ventures provided neith
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further poaching has not been repor
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http://www.pugwash.org/reports/pac/
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United Nations. 2003. World Populat
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how other countries with substantia
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(i) Broad-based and sustainable eco
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Although progress is encouraging, m
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Nepal’s Changing Pattern of Trade
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Table 12.2: Trade/ GDP RatiosFY1981
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Table 12.5: Percentage Share of Maj
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well as other provisions in specifi
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Future Implications for NepalIncrea
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International Trade Forum (ITN). 20
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- Gross domestic product per unit e
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Time Series InformationGenerally tw
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Table 13.1a: Different Datasets Col
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elevant due to its multidisciplinar
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Figure 13.6: Examples of Applicatio
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Judith DobmannThere are many source
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———.2003. Mapping Nepal Censu
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sustainable livelihoods requires an
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and haphazard. Population pressures
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issue. These deficiencies stem from
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population must be assessed. MOEST
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Appendix 14.1: List of Key Environm
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(vii) The EIA report approving agen
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Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty a
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Nepal’s Progress Towards the MDGs
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Goal 4: Reduce child mortalityReduc
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