Theological Origins of Modernity

172 chapter six
areas, reformers appeared throughout Europe. Already in 1520 Zwingli
had brought the Reformation to Switzerland, and many of his radical followers
soon formed the Anabaptist movement that spread across Europe,
especially among the lower classes. Th e transformation of the English
church began in 1529 with Henry VIII’s break with the pope and was fi nalized
in 1536 with the Act of Dissolution. In the same year Calvin published
the fi rst edition of his Institutes of the Christian Religion that shaped the
further development of the Reformation in Holland, Scotland, France,
Hungary, and parts of Germany as well. Th e rapid spread of the Reformation
was facilitated by the increased use of the printing press, but also
by the support of many princes who found it in their interest to oppose
Rome. Th e beginning of the Catholic Counter-reformation is usually dated
from the Council of Trent (1545–63), which standardized church doctrine
(thus eliminating the pluralism of Renaissance Christianity), consolidated
papal power, and empowered the Inquisition, but equally important was
the formation of the Jesuit order with its vow of absolute obedience to the
pope. Th e fi rst of the Religious Wars broke out in Germany in 1546 and was
only brought to an end in 1555 by the Peace of Augsburg, which allowed
princes to determine religious belief in their domains. Shortly thereaft er,
however, war broke out in France, which was particularly hard hit in the
latter half of the sixteenth century, suff ering through nine Wars of Religion
lasting from 1562 to 1598 that included the horrifying massacre of St.
Bartholomew’s Day. Th is period of warfare culminated in the so-called
War of the Th ree Henries (1584–89) and the War of the League (1589–98),
which ended only when the Protestant Henry of Navarre converted to Catholicism
and accepted the French throne as Henry IV. He issued the Edict
of Nantes in 1598, granting freedom of conscience and a limited freedom of
worship to the Huguenots, allowing them fortifi ed cities and royal support
for their pastors. Th is Edict remained in place until 1685, but aft er the assassination
of Henry IV in 1610, warfare broke out again and the Edict was
gradually rescinded. Th is accelerated aft er Richelieu came to power in 1624
vowing to break the Huguenots. He was as good as his word, capturing La
Rochelle in 1627 and revoking the corporate independence of Huguenots
with the Edict of Alais in 1629.
France was not the only country torn by religious wars. Almost all
of Europe was engulfed by the confl ict. Th e Th irty Years War (1618–48)
was centered in Germany but convulsed most of central and northern
Europe. Th is war began when Ferdinand II became Holy Roman Emperor
and sought to suppress Protestantism in all of his territories. Bohemia,
which was then a predominately Protestant region, revolted and off ered