confusion 249n, 408, 414n, 415, 437–8 Consistency 9, 32, 34&n, 50, section 24, 71–2, 78, 99, 384–5; of probability axioms see Probability, formal calculus of, see also Contradictions Constitute, Constitution 64nt, 76t&nt, 455, see also Reduction Content, empirical or informative 19, 49n, 93, 96t, 103, 103–4, 108, 114, 314–16, 385–7, 411&n, 415–16; increases with degree of falsifiability or testability and with improbability 101–2n, section 35, 103–5, 111, 113n, 114–15, 126n, 128, 183, 269n, 271–2&n, 374–5, 411&n, 415–16; measure of 103–5, 108, 385–91, 393–400, 416–17, 419–21, 429&n–32&n; of probability statements 181–3, see also Prohibitions Content <strong>logic</strong>al 103–4t, 104–5, 113n, 182n, 411n Continuity, Kolmogorov’s axiom of 334, 352–3t, 353–4 Contradiction 10, 34&n, 50, 66&n, 69, 71&n, 72, 78, 82, 99–102, 104–5, 111, 136, 160, 179&n, 181–2, 183–4, 255n, 264–5, 298–9, 315, 387&n–8&n, 410, 448–9, 449–50 Conventionalism 50–1, section 19, 57t–61, 121, 313–14, 315; excluded by a decision 33, 61, 62, 64, 78, 131; and simplicity section 46 129–30, see also Methods, conventionalist view of Conventionalist stratagem 61–3, see also Decisions, concerning subject index 497 conventionalist stratagem and concerning outcome of tests Conventions see Decisions Conviction, feelings of irrelevant to <strong>scientific</strong> discussion 21, 24–5, 79, 81, 87&n, 93, 171, 251, 258, see also Belief, ‘rational’ degree of Coordinates, spacio-temporal, Coordinate systems 41, 42&n, 44, 46n, 49, 67n, 69, 70, 82n, 84, 113n, 117–19, 123, 283, 370–1, 419n Corroborability section 82, 264, 268–72; degree of 269n, 270&n, 271n, 276, 416, see also Testability, degree of Corroboration 10t&n, 32&n, 39, 56, 66, 67, 81, 86, 90–1, 120, 182, 199, chapter X, 249nt, 250–1, 259, 261 section 81, 264–7, 276, 277, 380&n, 387, 397–8, 400, 402–3, 419n, 437–8; degree of 249nt, 264&n–7, 380, 412t–13, 416&nt–19&n, 420–2, 423–4, 427nt, 428&n, 430&n–1n, 434; as degree of rational belief 434; increases with degree of falsifiability or testability and is not probability 125, 249n, 253, 253n, 267&n–70&n, 271&n, 272, 309–11, 319–20, 334, 374–5, 397–8, 400&n, 402–3, 405–16, 436–7, 437–8; of probability statements 138, 146, 156–7n, 175, 183&n, 192–3, 194n, 199, 200, 204, 243, 245, 268n–73, 428–37; relativized 418, 419n, 422&n; and truth section 84, 273&n–6, 434, 436–7; ungraded 403t–5t, 406–7, 409, 412–16
498 subject index Cosmology, its problems are those of philosophy of science xviii; its problems are those of philosophy of science xxiii Critical attitude, Criticism xix–xx, 22n, 28–9, 29, 30&n, 34n, 80n, 199n, 210–11, 279, 281, 410, 437–8, 465–6, 476, see also Discussion; Rationalism Crucial experiment see Experiment Curves, dimensions of 123–4, 128n, 129, sections 39 & 40, 130–4, 394–6 Decidability or testability of probability statements 127, 133, 138–9, 157n, section 65, 181–5, 191–5n, 196–7, 259&n–60, 428–35 Decisions or proposals for the adoption of rules of methods 15–16, 28–9, 34, 90–3, 200, 245, 278; are indispensable with section 9, 27–9, 437–8; concerning acceptance of basic statements 66, 67n, 86–7, 88, 90, 93; concerning acceptance of a theory xxv–xxvi, 26, 32–3, 78, 90–1, 95–6, 437–8; concerning aim of science 14–16, 27 section 9, 30–1, 32, 34, 41–2, 49–50, 59, 89, 250–1; concerning causal explanations 39&n, 41, 200–1, 245, 245–6, 251n; concerning corroboration 269, 414–15; concerning demarcation of science 15–16, 49–50, 55, 315; concerning exclusion of ad hoc hypothesis 131, 271&n–3; concerning exclusion of conventionalist stratagems 33, 41, 61, 62, 78; concerning exclusion of metaphysics 32n; concerning exclusion of surreptitious changes 64; concerning outcome of tests 9, 10, 33, 67n, 86, 87, 93, 267; concerning preferability of precision 107–10; concerning preferability of simplicity 121, 126n, 128, 131; concerning preferability of testability 33, 55–6, 62–3, 81, 90–1, 107, 108–10, 131, 246, 267, 276, 438; concerning preferability of universality 56, 107, 267, 273, 276; concerning primitive terms 54, 62; concerning probability explanations 54, 183&n, 191&n, 192–3, 194&n, 196–7, 260; conventional character of 14–15, 32–3, 38 section 11; to test our hypotheses severely 32, 56, 246, 279–81, 315–16, 421–2, 432n, 437–8, 438; to try to clarify/ strengthen position before criticizing it 258n, see also Acceptability; Metaphysics, positivists’ hatred of Deduction, Deducibility xxiii, 9t, section 12, 37–40, 41&n, 50–1, 55n, 59, 62, 64–5, 68, 71&n, 78, 80, 82&n, 86, 103–5&n, 108, 136, 149–50, 161, 173–4, 205, 273&n, 275, 276, 277&n, 389, 456&n; generalized see Probability, <strong>logic</strong>al Deductivism see Method, deductivist view of Definition xxiii, 34, 53–4, 63, 119,
- Page 2:
The Logic of Scientific Discovery
- Page 5 and 6:
Logik der Forschung first published
- Page 8 and 9:
CONTENTS Translators’ Note xii Pr
- Page 10 and 11:
contents ix 7 37 Logical Ranges. No
- Page 12 and 13:
iii Derivation of the First Form of
- Page 14 and 15:
translators’ note xiii In these n
- Page 16 and 17:
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION, 1934
- Page 18 and 19:
There is nothing more necessary to
- Page 20 and 21:
preface, 1959 xix Language analysts
- Page 22 and 23:
xxii preface, 1959 perception or kn
- Page 24 and 25:
preface, 1959 xxiii essence of phil
- Page 26 and 27:
preface, 1959 xxv elaborate and fam
- Page 28:
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, 1960 and 1968 I wi
- Page 32 and 33:
1 A SURVEY OF SOME FUNDAMENTAL PROB
- Page 34 and 35:
a survey of some fundamental proble
- Page 36 and 37:
a survey of some fundamental proble
- Page 38 and 39:
a survey of some fundamental proble
- Page 40 and 41:
a survey of some fundamental proble
- Page 42 and 43:
trivial; for metaphysics has usuall
- Page 44 and 45:
a survey of some fundamental proble
- Page 46 and 47:
non-contradictory, a possible world
- Page 48 and 49:
a survey of some fundamental proble
- Page 50 and 51:
a survey of some fundamental proble
- Page 52 and 53:
a survey of some fundamental proble
- Page 54 and 55:
a survey of some fundamental proble
- Page 56 and 57:
2 ON THE PROBLEM OF A THEORY OF SCI
- Page 58 and 59:
on the problem of a theory of scien
- Page 60 and 61:
on the problem of a theory of scien
- Page 62 and 63:
on the problem of a theory of scien
- Page 64:
Part II Some Structural Components
- Page 67 and 68:
38 some structural components of a
- Page 69 and 70:
40 some structural components of a
- Page 71 and 72:
42 some structural components of a
- Page 73 and 74:
44 some structural components of a
- Page 75 and 76:
46 some structural components of a
- Page 77 and 78:
48 some structural components of a
- Page 79 and 80:
50 some structural components of a
- Page 81 and 82:
52 some structural components of a
- Page 83 and 84:
54 some structural components of a
- Page 85 and 86:
56 some structural components of a
- Page 87 and 88:
58 some structural components of a
- Page 89 and 90:
60 some structural components of a
- Page 91 and 92:
62 some structural components of a
- Page 93 and 94:
64 some structural components of a
- Page 95 and 96:
66 some structural components of a
- Page 97 and 98:
68 some structural components of a
- Page 99 and 100:
70 some structural components of a
- Page 101 and 102:
72 some structural components of a
- Page 103 and 104:
5 THE PROBLEM OF THE EMPIRICAL BASI
- Page 105 and 106:
76 some structural components of a
- Page 107 and 108:
78 some structural components of a
- Page 109 and 110:
80 some structural components of a
- Page 111 and 112:
82 some structural components of a
- Page 113 and 114:
84 some structural components of a
- Page 115 and 116:
86 some structural components of a
- Page 117 and 118:
88 some structural components of a
- Page 119 and 120:
90 some structural components of a
- Page 121 and 122:
92 some structural components of a
- Page 123 and 124:
94 some structural components of a
- Page 125 and 126:
96 some structural components of a
- Page 127 and 128:
98 some structural components of a
- Page 129 and 130:
100 some structural components of a
- Page 131 and 132:
102 some structural components of a
- Page 133 and 134:
104 some structural components of a
- Page 135 and 136:
106 some structural components of a
- Page 137 and 138:
108 some structural components of a
- Page 139 and 140:
110 some structural components of a
- Page 141 and 142:
112 some structural components of a
- Page 143 and 144:
114 some structural components of a
- Page 145 and 146:
116 some structural components of a
- Page 147 and 148:
118 some structural components of a
- Page 149 and 150:
120 some structural components of a
- Page 151 and 152:
122 some structural components of a
- Page 153 and 154:
124 some structural components of a
- Page 155 and 156:
126 some structural components of a
- Page 157 and 158:
128 some structural components of a
- Page 159 and 160:
130 some structural components of a
- Page 161 and 162:
132 some structural components of a
- Page 163 and 164:
134 some structural components of a
- Page 165 and 166:
136 some structural components of a
- Page 167 and 168:
138 some structural components of a
- Page 169 and 170:
140 some structural components of a
- Page 171 and 172:
142 some structural components of a
- Page 173 and 174:
144 some structural components of a
- Page 175 and 176:
146 some structural components of a
- Page 177 and 178:
148 some structural components of a
- Page 179 and 180:
150 some structural components of a
- Page 181 and 182:
152 some structural components of a
- Page 183 and 184:
154 some structural components of a
- Page 185 and 186:
156 some structural components of a
- Page 187 and 188:
158 some structural components of a
- Page 189 and 190:
160 some structural components of a
- Page 191 and 192:
162 some structural components of a
- Page 193 and 194:
164 some structural components of a
- Page 195 and 196:
166 some structural components of a
- Page 197 and 198:
168 some structural components of a
- Page 199 and 200:
170 some structural components of a
- Page 201 and 202:
172 some structural components of a
- Page 203 and 204:
174 some structural components of a
- Page 205 and 206:
176 some structural components of a
- Page 207 and 208:
178 some structural components of a
- Page 209 and 210:
180 some structural components of a
- Page 211 and 212:
182 some structural components of a
- Page 213 and 214:
184 some structural components of a
- Page 215 and 216:
186 some structural components of a
- Page 217 and 218:
188 some structural components of a
- Page 219 and 220:
190 some structural components of a
- Page 221 and 222:
192 some structural components of a
- Page 223 and 224:
194 some structural components of a
- Page 225 and 226:
196 some structural components of a
- Page 227 and 228:
198 some structural components of a
- Page 229 and 230:
200 some structural components of a
- Page 231 and 232:
202 some structural components of a
- Page 233 and 234:
204 some structural components of a
- Page 235 and 236:
206 some structural components of a
- Page 237 and 238:
208 some structural components of a
- Page 239 and 240:
210 some structural components of a
- Page 241 and 242:
212 some structural components of a
- Page 243 and 244:
214 some structural components of a
- Page 245 and 246:
216 some structural components of a
- Page 247 and 248:
218 some structural components of a
- Page 249 and 250:
220 some structural components of a
- Page 251 and 252:
222 some structural components of a
- Page 253 and 254:
224 some structural components of a
- Page 255 and 256:
226 some structural components of a
- Page 257 and 258:
228 some structural components of a
- Page 259 and 260:
230 some structural components of a
- Page 261 and 262:
232 some structural components of a
- Page 263 and 264:
234 some structural components of a
- Page 265 and 266:
236 some structural components of a
- Page 267 and 268:
238 some structural components of a
- Page 269 and 270:
240 some structural components of a
- Page 271 and 272:
242 some structural components of a
- Page 273 and 274:
244 some structural components of a
- Page 275 and 276:
246 some structural components of a
- Page 277 and 278:
10 CORROBORATION, OR HOW A THEORY S
- Page 279 and 280:
250 some structural components of a
- Page 281 and 282:
252 some structural components of a
- Page 283 and 284:
254 some structural components of a
- Page 285 and 286:
256 some structural components of a
- Page 287 and 288:
258 some structural components of a
- Page 289 and 290:
260 some structural components of a
- Page 291 and 292:
262 some structural components of a
- Page 293 and 294:
264 some structural components of a
- Page 295 and 296:
266 some structural components of a
- Page 297 and 298:
268 some structural components of a
- Page 299 and 300:
270 some structural components of a
- Page 301 and 302:
272 some structural components of a
- Page 303 and 304:
274 some structural components of a
- Page 305 and 306:
276 some structural components of a
- Page 307 and 308:
278 some structural components of a
- Page 309 and 310:
280 some structural components of a
- Page 311 and 312:
282 some structural components of a
- Page 313 and 314:
284 appendices it is connected with
- Page 315 and 316:
APPENDIX ii The General Calculus of
- Page 317 and 318:
288 appendices —we obtain from (2
- Page 319 and 320:
APPENDIX iii Derivation of the Firs
- Page 321 and 322:
292 appendices (6,1) αF″(σ´ m.
- Page 323 and 324:
294 appendices after effect) in the
- Page 325 and 326:
296 appendices (b) An analogous met
- Page 327 and 328:
298 appendices position), then we a
- Page 329 and 330:
300 appendices incoherent photons.
- Page 331 and 332:
302 appendices interposition of a f
- Page 333 and 334:
304 appendices wave-packets (obtain
- Page 335 and 336:
306 appendices slit. This angle φ
- Page 337 and 338:
308 appendices latter, if we use hi
- Page 339 and 340:
310 new appendices The first two of
- Page 341 and 342:
APPENDIX *i Two Notes on Induction
- Page 343 and 344:
314 new appendices statements’;*
- Page 345 and 346:
316 new appendices be the source fr
- Page 347 and 348:
318 new appendices with the help of
- Page 349 and 350:
320 new appendices logical interpre
- Page 351 and 352:
322 new appendices It is desirable
- Page 353 and 354:
324 new appendices operations—con
- Page 355 and 356:
326 new appendices (3) It will be a
- Page 357 and 358:
328 new appendices (7) The derivati
- Page 359 and 360:
330 new appendices There are three
- Page 361 and 362:
332 new appendices that is to say,
- Page 363 and 364:
334 new appendices invalid, and sho
- Page 365 and 366:
336 new appendices simplified syste
- Page 367 and 368:
338 new appendices The following co
- Page 369 and 370:
340 new appendices able to show tha
- Page 371 and 372:
342 new appendices obtain p(a, c) =
- Page 373 and 374:
344 new appendices The second examp
- Page 375 and 376:
346 new appendices first consistenc
- Page 377 and 378:
348 new appendices S′ ={0, 1, 2,
- Page 379 and 380:
350 new appendices B1 is violated b
- Page 381 and 382:
352 new appendices always fill the
- Page 383 and 384:
354 new appendices It should be men
- Page 385 and 386:
APPENDIX *v Derivations in the Form
- Page 387 and 388:
358 new appendices (26) (Eb) (Ea) p
- Page 389 and 390:
360 new appendices (Applying B2 twi
- Page 391 and 392:
362 new appendices form: it is unco
- Page 393 and 394:
364 new appendices In order to prov
- Page 395 and 396:
366 new appendices which is neverth
- Page 397 and 398:
368 new appendices the other axioms
- Page 399 and 400:
370 new appendices between rain and
- Page 401 and 402:
372 new appendices in the widest po
- Page 403 and 404:
APPENDIX *vii Zero Probability and
- Page 405 and 406:
376 new appendices favourable possi
- Page 407 and 408:
378 new appendices (4) p(a) = lim p
- Page 409 and 410:
380 new appendices The same point m
- Page 411 and 412:
382 new appendices inferences from
- Page 413 and 414:
384 new appendices the required a a
- Page 415 and 416:
386 new appendices ‘universe’
- Page 417 and 418:
388 new appendices All this does no
- Page 419 and 420:
390 new appendices The fine-structu
- Page 421 and 422:
APPENDIX *viii Content, Simplicity,
- Page 423 and 424:
394 new appendices each entry repre
- Page 425 and 426:
396 new appendices But formula (*)
- Page 427 and 428:
398 new appendices (−) d(a 1)p(a
- Page 429 and 430:
400 new appendices thus becomes som
- Page 431 and 432:
APPENDIX *ix Corroboration, the Wei
- Page 433 and 434:
404 new appendices I will now brief
- Page 435 and 436:
406 new appendices of the brevity o
- Page 437 and 438:
408 new appendices who identify, ex
- Page 439 and 440:
410 new appendices Kemeny.) Therefo
- Page 441 and 442:
412 new appendices DEGREE OF CONFIR
- Page 443 and 444:
414 new appendices (4.5) C(x 1x 2 o
- Page 445 and 446:
416 new appendices strongly upon P(
- Page 447 and 448:
418 new appendices (vii) If C(x) =
- Page 449 and 450:
420 new appendices to be slightly a
- Page 451 and 452:
422 new appendices length, to take
- Page 453 and 454:
424 new appendices A THIRD NOTE ON
- Page 455 and 456:
426 new appendices (3) P(a) = P(a,
- Page 457 and 458:
428 new appendices behaviour of E a
- Page 459 and 460:
430 new appendices either if δ is
- Page 461 and 462:
432 new appendices statistical inte
- Page 463 and 464:
434 new appendices them, there is a
- Page 465 and 466:
436 new appendices statements e, f,
- Page 467 and 468:
438 new appendices simply deceive o
- Page 469 and 470:
APPENDIX *x Universals, Disposition
- Page 471 and 472:
442 new appendices One can easily s
- Page 473 and 474:
444 new appendices statement such a
- Page 475 and 476: 446 new appendices more abstract. T
- Page 477 and 478: 448 new appendices natural laws see
- Page 479 and 480: 450 new appendices indirect proof.
- Page 481 and 482: 452 new appendices physical theory
- Page 483 and 484: 454 new appendices is deducible fro
- Page 485 and 486: 456 new appendices A little reflect
- Page 487 and 488: 458 new appendices differ (if at al
- Page 489 and 490: 460 new appendices the world. And a
- Page 491 and 492: 462 new appendices the phenomenalis
- Page 493 and 494: APPENDIX *xi On the Use and Misuse
- Page 495 and 496: 466 new appendices a gravitational
- Page 497 and 498: 468 new appendices with, its co-ord
- Page 499 and 500: 470 new appendices based upon his f
- Page 501 and 502: 472 new appendices moving freely be
- Page 503 and 504: 474 new appendices of insuperable b
- Page 505 and 506: 476 new appendices Einstein.) The m
- Page 507 and 508: 478 new appendices photographic pla
- Page 509 and 510: 480 new appendices My impression is
- Page 511 and 512: 482 new appendices letter were to b
- Page 513 and 514: 484 new appendices statistical desc
- Page 515 and 516: 486 new appendices
- Page 517 and 518: 488 new appendices
- Page 519 and 520: 490 name index Carnap, R. 7n, 13n,
- Page 521 and 522: 492 name index Mises, R. 133, 135n,
- Page 523 and 524: SUBJECT INDEX Italicized page numbe
- Page 525: 496 subject index Binomial formula
- Page 529 and 530: 500 subject index Empirical basis s
- Page 531 and 532: 502 subject index and ad hoc hypoth
- Page 533 and 534: 504 subject index 150&nt, see also
- Page 535 and 536: 506 subject index Modus Ponens 71n,
- Page 537 and 538: 508 subject index 319-20; indutive
- Page 539 and 540: 510 subject index 142&n, 154n, 174&
- Page 541 and 542: 512 subject index experiment 474-5,