Health Risks of Ionizing Radiation: - Clark University

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may be of little benefit to those who bear the burden of risk. A figure such as this can also be misleading because of the variability of individual exposure histories. For example, a person who works in a nuclear facility will probably be exposed to more manmade radiation than a person who does not; this will alter the distribution of the pie chart and the overall amount of exposure. A person who lives in an area of particularly high fallout from the Nevada Test Site will also have a different exposure pattern than the average American, and so will someone with a history of extensive diagnostic radiation for a medical condition such as scoliosis. 1.4 Standards In 1946 the Atomic Energy Act established the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) to maintain control of atomic technology and to further its use for military purposes. In 1954 Congress passed new legislation outlining three roles for the AEC: 1) continue its weapons program, 2) promote the private use of atomic energy for peaceful application, and 3) protect public health and safety from the hazards of commercial nuclear power. It soon became apparent that there was a conflict of interest with the same agency promoting the use of nuclear power and setting the standards of safety for this use. In 1974 Congress divided the AEC into the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The NRC is not the sole agency with regulatory power regarding nuclear safety. The Federal Radiation Council, established in 1959 and consolidated into the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970, advises the President regarding radiation and health. The EPA’s radiation protection guides (RPG) are approved by the President and have the force and effect of law as all federal agencies are required to follow them. NRC regulations, which nuclear power facilities must follow, must be consistent with the RPGs. Other agencies responsible for regulating aspects of radiation exposure include the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the Introduction 3 Postal Service (USPS), and the Department of Transportation (DOT). Naturally occurring radionuclides are normally regulated by state governments. Twenty nine states regulate byproduct radioactive material and radiation devices within the state. 3 Two series of reports provide much of the data used in radiation standard setting. The reports are produced by the National Academy of Sciences’ Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (NAS/BEIR) and the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). Both committees prepare reports as new data or analyses are made available indicating that previous risk estimates need to be revised either up or down. A relatively new radiation protection advisory committee was formed in 1997, the European Committee on Radiation Risk (ECRR). This committee was formed by the Green Group in the European Parliament to discuss details of recent progress in radiological protection standards. The ECRR strives to make no assumptions about radiation safety based on preceding analyses and to remain independent of previous risk assessment committees such as the ICRP and the UNSCEAR. A report from the ECRR was released in 2003. Over the years, as the general consciousness has evolved about the risks of radiation exposure, the international and national radiation protection standards have dramatically changed. Figure 1- 2 depicts the change in protection standards for nuclear workers. Because there is no one standard that all facilities and workplaces follow, the figure is based on recommendations of a variety of sources and summarizes the overall trend of standards. 1.5 Radiation basics The physics and chemistry of radiation can be confusing, and the extensive terminology associated with radiation makes the problem much worse. We present below a minimum of information to avoid clouding our focus on epidemiology. Much more information is available online in the form of tutorials and factsheets 4 . 3 www.fpm.wisc.edu/safety/Radiation/2000%20Manual/chapter3.pdf 4 For example: www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/cover.htm or www.nirs.org/factsheets/whatisradiation.htm
4 Introduction Figure 1-2. The evolution of health protection standards for nuclear workers (Department of Energy, Office of Environmental Management 1996).
Page 1 and 2: Health Risks of Ionizing Radiation:
Page 3 and 4: Contents List of Tables ...........
Page 5 and 6: Contents iii Rocky Flats ..........
Page 7 and 8: Contents v APPENDIX A .............
Page 9 and 10: List of Figures Figure 1-1 Average
Page 11 and 12: We are indeed grateful to those who
Page 13: 2 Introduction 1.2 A brief history
Page 17 and 18: 6 Introduction Figure 1-5(a). Alpha
Page 19 and 20: 8 Introduction In epidemiological s
Page 21 and 22: 10 Introduction precision to detect
Page 23 and 24: 12 Introduction available informati
Page 25 and 26: 14 Background Radiation Figure 2-1.
Page 27 and 28: 16 Background Radiation Figure 2-3.
Page 29 and 30: 18 Background Radiation
Page 31 and 32: 20 Medical Exposures Fi
Page 33 and 34: 22 Medical Exposures
Page 35 and 36: 24 Medical Exposures with national
Page 37 and 38: 26 Medical Exposures localized expo
Page 39 and 40: 28 Medical Exposures (2.1-28.7). Th
Page 41 and 42: 30 Medical Exposures posed 2.69 tim
Page 43 and 44: 32 Medical Exposures with diagnosti
Page 45 and 46: 34 Medical Exposures Table 3-1. Stu
Page 55 and 56: 44 Atomic Bomb Survivors Figure 4-2
Page 57 and 58: 46 Atomic Bomb Survivors
Page 59 and 60: 48 Atomic Bomb Survivors approximat
Page 61 and 62: 50 Atomic Bomb Survivors (ALL), acu
Page 63 and 64: 52 Atomic Bomb Survivors of the 8 t
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54 Atomic Bomb Survivors
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56 Atomic Bomb Survivors
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5 Nuclear Weapons Testing Over 500
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60 Nuclear Weapons Testing by disti
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62 Nuclear Weapons Testing Figure 5
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64 Nuclear Weapons Testing near the
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66 Nuclear Weapons Testing
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68 Nuclear Weapons Testing
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6 RADIATION WORKERS Introduction Th
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72 Radiation Workers • 50 rem (0.
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74 Radiation Workers work, reports
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76 Radiation Workers Figure 6-5. A
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78 Radiation Workers Figure 6-8. To
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82 Radiation Workers Feed Material
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84 Radiation Workers by Beral et al
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88 Radiation Workers Table 6-1. Leu
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90 Radiation Workers No
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92 Radiation Workers N
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94 Radiation Workers S
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96 Radiation Workers ERR estim
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98 Mayak Workers Table 1. Dose (Gy)
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100 Mayak Workers workers at the ra
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102 Mayak Workers
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104 Uranium Miners enrichment facil
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106 Uranium Miners Samet et al. (19
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108 Uranium Miners were selected 12
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Uranium Miners 111
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9 RADIATION EXPOSURE IN FLIGHT The
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DNA damage (a chemical change in DN
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10 PRECONCEPTION EXPOSURES Several
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of risk in the lowest dose groups,
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found elevated solid cancer risk wi
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preconception doses between 2.5 and
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Table 10-1. Preconception irradiati
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Preconception Exposures 127
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Tracheoesophageal fistula and conge
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cancer were both associated with th
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0.10-4.71) while respiratory system
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elationship was not significant for
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times higher than in less-contamina
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Nuclear Power Accidents 139
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12 COMMUNITIES NEAR NUCLEAR FACILIT
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levels (this could not in itself be
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Figure 12-3. Native Americans from
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of leukemia was measured over a lar
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(RR 1.06; 1.00-1.11) and risks of s
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more that we can say about this app
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Communities Near Nuclear Facilities
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54 observed vs. 46.1 expected death
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13 DISCUSSION Our intention in crea
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myeloid leukemia) was significantly
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0.1-3.5 WLM; this is roughly equiva
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adon (Lubin et al. 1997). These res
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Leukemia Leukemia, a general term t
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vical cancer. The doses to these pa
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England have found it convenient to
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Thyroid disease Thyroid cancer is a
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1986 through 1995. These workers sh
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dence of this disease includes elev
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Analysis of preconception exposure
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Paternal age, education, drinking O
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Gardner et al. 1990 Employed at Sel
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we consider this group of a few hun
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Leukemia risk (excluding CLL) among
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Glossary of Terms for Epidemiology
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Glossary 199 Beta radiation: Stream
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Dosimetry: Measurement or estimatio
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Glossary 203 Hypothyroidism: The cl
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Glossary 205 Metastasis: 1. Movemen
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Glossary 207 waves, ultra violet (U
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Glossary 209 Thyroid Disease: disea
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Bibliography ATSDR. Public Health A
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Bhatia S, Sklar C. Second cancers i
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Bibliography 215 Cavallo D, Tomao P
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Bibliography 217 Department of Ener
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Bibliography 219 Gardner MJ, Hall A
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Haldorsen T, Reitan JB, Tveten U. C
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Bibliography 223 Howe GR, Nair R, N
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of Mayak, A comparison of numerical
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Bibliography 227 Laird NM. Thyroid
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control population. International J
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Bibliography 231 Neel JV, Schull WJ
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2003.160:381-407. Bibliography 233
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Bibliography 235 Saccomanno G, Auer
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Bibliography 237 analysis of cancer
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Bibliography 239 Tokarskaya ZB, Sco
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Journal of Epidemiology 1987.125(2)
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Actinium, 84 Acute lymphocytic leuk
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and Nevada Test Site, 60-61, 62 nuc
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Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, 185 Heal
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studies, 101-2 Medical exposure, 19
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(RERF), 43 Radiation Exposure Compe
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Viruses, 118, 154, 193 West Germany
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