Health Risks of Ionizing Radiation: - Clark University

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Figure 1-3. The atom. A simple depiction of a helium atom with approximate locations of the positively charged protons and the neutrally charged neutrons in the atom’s nucleus and the negatively charged electrons orbiting outside the nucleus (www.ocrwm.doe.gov/.../images/ ymp0403graphics.htm). Ionizing radiation is typically emitted when a radioactive, unstable nucleus rearranges itself into a more stable state. A stable atom has an equal number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus (Figure 1- 3). Stable iodine, for example, has 53 protons and 53 neutrons. An atom is defined by the number of protons it has; iodine is iodine because it has 53 protons. An atom can have a different number of neutrons, however, and in this case it is an unstable isotope of the atom. Iodine-131, for example, an important isotope in nuclear fallout, has 53 protons and 78 neutrons. We call it Iodine-131 because the combined number of protons and neutrons is 131. This number is also commonly written as a superscript prefix, for example “ 131 I”. This isotope is radioactive, meaning that it will spontaneously rearrange itself at some point in the future. When it does it will emit one or two forms of ionizing radiation. The three major types of ionizing radiation that radioactive substances emit are alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays (Figures 1-4, 1-5). Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons, making them identical to the nucleus of a helium atom (Figure 1-3). These particles are relatively large and can only travel short distances. They are also easily stopped by skin. Beta particles are high- Introduction 5 speed electrons that are emitted from an unstable nucleus. Since these are smaller than alpha particles they can penetrate deeper, roughly a centimeter, into tissue. In order for alpha and beta particles to cause biological damage they must enter the body (through inhalation or ingestion). Gamma rays are photons, or packets of light energy. Gamma radiation represents the energy lost when the particles within the nucleus reorganize into more stable arrangements and they accompany other forms of radiation. X-rays, like gamma rays, are photons. Unlike gamma rays, x-rays originate in electron fields around the nucleus 5 . Gamma and x-rays can pass through the body and are thus are the most important source of external radiation exposure. Different types of radiation have distinct damage potential described by their Linear Energy Transfer (LET). LET refers to the energy deposited in the surrounding medium, and thus potential damage, per unit of distance traveled. Alpha radiation is high- LET because it deposits a relatively large amount of energy in a small area before it stops. Beta, gamma and x-radiation are low-LET because they deposit energy in a more diffuse pattern. Figure 1-4. Types of radiation. Alpha particles are comparatively large and are not able to pass through skin or a sheet of paper. A beta particle is smaller and can pass through a piece of paper but is stopped by a sheet of aluminum foil. A gamma ray can pass through both paper and aluminum foil (and the human body) but is stopped by lead or concrete (www.ocrwm.doe.gov/.../images/ ymp0403graphics.htm). 5 The generation of x-rays is largely artificial. A good, simple, online illustration is available at http://www.colorado. edu/physics/2000/xray/making_x-rays.html
6 Introduction Figure 1-5(a). Alpha particle radiation occurs when an unstable nucleus (the parent nucleus) releases a particle equivalent to the nucleus of a helium atom (2 neutrons and 2 protons) thus leaving a nucleus with 2 less protons and neutrons (the daughter nucleus). Figure 1-5(b). Beta particle radiation occurs when a parent nucleus releases an electron (this is called a beta particle to differentiate it from the electrons that orbit the nucleus). Figure 1-5(c). After a decay reaction, the nucleus is often in an “excited” state. This means that the decay has resulted in a nucleus which still has excess energy to get rid of. Rather than emitting another beta or alpha particle, this energy is lost by emitting a pulse of electromagnetic radiation called a gamma ray (www.doh.wa.gov/.../ Fact%20Sheet%203.htm).
Page 1 and 2: Health Risks of Ionizing Radiation:
Page 3 and 4: Contents List of Tables ...........
Page 5 and 6: Contents iii Rocky Flats ..........
Page 7 and 8: Contents v APPENDIX A .............
Page 9 and 10: List of Figures Figure 1-1 Average
Page 11 and 12: We are indeed grateful to those who
Page 13 and 14: 2 Introduction 1.2 A brief history
Page 15: 4 Introduction Figure 1-2. The evol
Page 19 and 20: 8 Introduction In epidemiological s
Page 21 and 22: 10 Introduction precision to detect
Page 23 and 24: 12 Introduction available informati
Page 25 and 26: 14 Background Radiation Figure 2-1.
Page 27 and 28: 16 Background Radiation Figure 2-3.
Page 29 and 30: 18 Background Radiation
Page 31 and 32: 20 Medical Exposures Fi
Page 33 and 34: 22 Medical Exposures
Page 35 and 36: 24 Medical Exposures with national
Page 37 and 38: 26 Medical Exposures localized expo
Page 39 and 40: 28 Medical Exposures (2.1-28.7). Th
Page 41 and 42: 30 Medical Exposures posed 2.69 tim
Page 43 and 44: 32 Medical Exposures with diagnosti
Page 45 and 46: 34 Medical Exposures Table 3-1. Stu
Page 55 and 56: 44 Atomic Bomb Survivors Figure 4-2
Page 57 and 58: 46 Atomic Bomb Survivors
Page 59 and 60: 48 Atomic Bomb Survivors approximat
Page 61 and 62: 50 Atomic Bomb Survivors (ALL), acu
Page 63 and 64: 52 Atomic Bomb Survivors of the 8 t
Page 65 and 66: 54 Atomic Bomb Survivors
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56 Atomic Bomb Survivors
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5 Nuclear Weapons Testing Over 500
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60 Nuclear Weapons Testing by disti
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62 Nuclear Weapons Testing Figure 5
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64 Nuclear Weapons Testing near the
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66 Nuclear Weapons Testing
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68 Nuclear Weapons Testing
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6 RADIATION WORKERS Introduction Th
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72 Radiation Workers • 50 rem (0.
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74 Radiation Workers work, reports
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76 Radiation Workers Figure 6-5. A
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78 Radiation Workers Figure 6-8. To
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82 Radiation Workers Feed Material
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84 Radiation Workers by Beral et al
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88 Radiation Workers Table 6-1. Leu
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90 Radiation Workers No
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92 Radiation Workers N
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94 Radiation Workers S
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96 Radiation Workers ERR estim
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98 Mayak Workers Table 1. Dose (Gy)
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100 Mayak Workers workers at the ra
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102 Mayak Workers
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104 Uranium Miners enrichment facil
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106 Uranium Miners Samet et al. (19
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108 Uranium Miners were selected 12
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Uranium Miners 111
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9 RADIATION EXPOSURE IN FLIGHT The
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DNA damage (a chemical change in DN
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10 PRECONCEPTION EXPOSURES Several
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of risk in the lowest dose groups,
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found elevated solid cancer risk wi
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preconception doses between 2.5 and
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Table 10-1. Preconception irradiati
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Preconception Exposures 127
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Tracheoesophageal fistula and conge
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cancer were both associated with th
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0.10-4.71) while respiratory system
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elationship was not significant for
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times higher than in less-contamina
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Nuclear Power Accidents 139
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12 COMMUNITIES NEAR NUCLEAR FACILIT
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levels (this could not in itself be
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Figure 12-3. Native Americans from
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of leukemia was measured over a lar
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(RR 1.06; 1.00-1.11) and risks of s
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more that we can say about this app
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Communities Near Nuclear Facilities
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54 observed vs. 46.1 expected death
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13 DISCUSSION Our intention in crea
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myeloid leukemia) was significantly
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0.1-3.5 WLM; this is roughly equiva
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adon (Lubin et al. 1997). These res
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Leukemia Leukemia, a general term t
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vical cancer. The doses to these pa
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England have found it convenient to
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Thyroid disease Thyroid cancer is a
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1986 through 1995. These workers sh
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dence of this disease includes elev
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Analysis of preconception exposure
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Paternal age, education, drinking O
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Gardner et al. 1990 Employed at Sel
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we consider this group of a few hun
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Leukemia risk (excluding CLL) among
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Glossary of Terms for Epidemiology
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Glossary 199 Beta radiation: Stream
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Dosimetry: Measurement or estimatio
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Glossary 203 Hypothyroidism: The cl
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Glossary 205 Metastasis: 1. Movemen
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Glossary 207 waves, ultra violet (U
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Glossary 209 Thyroid Disease: disea
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Bibliography ATSDR. Public Health A
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Bhatia S, Sklar C. Second cancers i
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Bibliography 215 Cavallo D, Tomao P
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Bibliography 217 Department of Ener
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Bibliography 219 Gardner MJ, Hall A
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Haldorsen T, Reitan JB, Tveten U. C
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Bibliography 223 Howe GR, Nair R, N
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of Mayak, A comparison of numerical
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Bibliography 227 Laird NM. Thyroid
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control population. International J
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Bibliography 231 Neel JV, Schull WJ
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2003.160:381-407. Bibliography 233
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Bibliography 235 Saccomanno G, Auer
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Bibliography 237 analysis of cancer
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Bibliography 239 Tokarskaya ZB, Sco
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Journal of Epidemiology 1987.125(2)
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Actinium, 84 Acute lymphocytic leuk
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and Nevada Test Site, 60-61, 62 nuc
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Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, 185 Heal
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studies, 101-2 Medical exposure, 19
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(RERF), 43 Radiation Exposure Compe
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Viruses, 118, 154, 193 West Germany
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