Health Risks of Ionizing Radiation: - Clark University

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4 ATOMIC BOMB SURVIVORS 4.1 Introduction The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August of 1945 were terrible events that have come to symbolize the destructive potential of our civilization. They have also been a grim opportunity to study the health effects of radiation exposure in humans and have become the standard reference point for what radiation does to our bodies. The story of the bombs and their health effects is complicated and continually evolving. In the months immediately after the bombings there was little understanding among the general population about possible health risks. Dr. Harold Jacobson, a former Manhattan Project scientist, warned that the effects of an atomic bomb could be long lasting and was widely criticized for his comments by members of the War Department and Manhattan Project officials. A team of Manhattan Project doctors and technicians traveled to the two cities to prove that there was no residual radioactivity from the bombs. In the American press, radiation was rarely mentioned and President Truman was quoted as saying the bombs were “just another piece of artillery”. This ignorance was short lived, however. After two years excess cases of leukemia began to develop and in 1946 The Atomic Bomb Causality Commission (ABCC) was created to collect information about the increasingly apparent health effects in the survivors. The Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) was organized in 1975 out of the ABCC as a scientific research institution financially supported by the governments of the United States and Japan. Today, many radiation protection standards are largely dependent on the data and analysis generated by the ABCC and RERF. 43 RERF research. Many of the RERF studies reviewed here are based on a roster including over 284,000 survivors (known as the Master Sample). Studies conducted by the ABCC/RERF have used subsets of the Master Sample including the Life Span Study (LSS) cohort, which includes all survivors whose permanent place of family registration was Hiroshima or Nagasaki. The LSS sample was divided into four groups corresponding to where people were at the time of the bombing: within 2,000 meters of the hypocenter, 2,000-2,499 meters from the hypocenter, 2,500-10,000 meters from the hypocenter (the people in this group were matched with the first group by city, age, and sex), and outside of both cities (also matched with people in the first group). The LSS was expanded in the late 1960s and again in 1980. Most of the LSS analyses have focused on the 93,741 cohort members who were in the cities at the time of the bombings. Other Figure 4-1. The bomb dropped over Nagasaki on August 9, 1945 was called Fat Man. It weighed 10,000 lbs and had a 21,000 ton yield (http://library.thinkquest. org/20176/atomicbomb.htm&h=161&w=250&sz=31&tbnid =CHSWCuBAVGoJ:&tbnh=68&tbnw=106&start=6&prev=/ images%3Fq%3Da-bomb%2B%2522fat%2Bman%2522%26 hl%Den%26lr%3D).
44 Atomic Bomb Survivors Figure 4-2. A view of the destruction of the city of Hiroshima. The building in the top right corner still stands as a monument to the event (www.ww2guide.com/atombomb. shtml). sub-samples of the Master Sample include a sample of those survivors who were exposed in utero and a cohort of the first generation children born to survivors. The RERF has released the results of its LSS studies in a series of papers that describe cancer and noncancer mortality, solid cancer incidence, and leukemia incidence. These documents have provided important insights into the effects of radiation exposure and have been updated and expanded over time 1 . Over the years RERF researchers have consistently demonstrated associations between radiation exposure and many diseases, cancer and non-cancer. Thompson et al. (1994) found significant excesses of total solid tumors and tumors of the digestive system, stomach, colon, liver, respiratory system, trachea, bronchus, lung, skin (nonmelanoma), breast, ovary, kidney, urinary bladder, and thyroid. Preston et al. (1994) found positive correlations between radiation exposure and the incidence of non-solid cancers including acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL), acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), chronic myelocytic leukemia (CML) and lymphoma in males. Shimizu et al. (1999) demonstrated excess mortality from noncancer diseases of the circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems. Other studies have demonstrated increased risk in people who were in utero at the time of the bombings and have examined, with inconclusive results, risks in the F 1 generation (children born to survivors). Much more information is available at the RERF website 2 including periodic updates on the latest developments in the research project. Doses. Reliable estimates of exposure are critical in accurately assessing the risks associated with the atomic bombs. When the bombs were first dropped in 1945 the immediate effects of the bombs were expected but the lasting effects were unknown; at the time of the bombing there was no system of measuring doses in place. It wasn’t until excess leukemia became apparent a few years later that particular attention was paid to estimating doses. During the 1950s and 1960s Japanese scientists created the T57D and then T65D dosimetry systems. Gamma and neutron doses were inferred for these dosimetry systems from calculations and experiments performed at the Nevada Test Site. Neutron doses were not considered to be of great importance in these initial systems. In 1986 the DS86 dosimetry system was developed as part of an international effort to refine dose estimates. In the new system there was a considerable reduction in the estimated neutron doses; it was concluded that neutrons were much less significant than gamma radiation in contributing to health effects. The DS86 system also takes into account the survivor distance from the epicenter, shielding (both by housing and by the posture of the person at the time Figure 4-3. A view from the air of the bombing of Nagasaki (http://www.astrosurf.com/lombry/quantique-bombesatomiques-pic.htm). 1 As of January 1998, 48% of the exposed cohort was still alive; follow-up will be incomplete and ongoing into the near future. 2 www.rerf.or.jp/eigo/experhp/rerfhome.htm
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Health Risks of Ionizing Radiation:
Page 3 and 4: Contents List of Tables ...........
Page 5 and 6: Contents iii Rocky Flats ..........
Page 7 and 8: Contents v APPENDIX A .............
Page 9 and 10: List of Figures Figure 1-1 Average
Page 11 and 12: We are indeed grateful to those who
Page 13 and 14: 2 Introduction 1.2 A brief history
Page 15 and 16: 4 Introduction Figure 1-2. The evol
Page 17 and 18: 6 Introduction Figure 1-5(a). Alpha
Page 19 and 20: 8 Introduction In epidemiological s
Page 21 and 22: 10 Introduction precision to detect
Page 23 and 24: 12 Introduction available informati
Page 25 and 26: 14 Background Radiation Figure 2-1.
Page 27 and 28: 16 Background Radiation Figure 2-3.
Page 29 and 30: 18 Background Radiation
Page 31 and 32: 20 Medical Exposures Fi
Page 33 and 34: 22 Medical Exposures
Page 35 and 36: 24 Medical Exposures with national
Page 37 and 38: 26 Medical Exposures localized expo
Page 39 and 40: 28 Medical Exposures (2.1-28.7). Th
Page 41 and 42: 30 Medical Exposures posed 2.69 tim
Page 43 and 44: 32 Medical Exposures with diagnosti
Page 45 and 46: 34 Medical Exposures Table 3-1. Stu
Page 53: 42 Medical Exposures
Page 57 and 58: 46 Atomic Bomb Survivors
Page 59 and 60: 48 Atomic Bomb Survivors approximat
Page 61 and 62: 50 Atomic Bomb Survivors (ALL), acu
Page 63 and 64: 52 Atomic Bomb Survivors of the 8 t
Page 69 and 70: 5 Nuclear Weapons Testing Over 500
Page 71 and 72: 60 Nuclear Weapons Testing by disti
Page 73 and 74: 62 Nuclear Weapons Testing Figure 5
Page 75 and 76: 64 Nuclear Weapons Testing near the
Page 77 and 78: 66 Nuclear Weapons Testing
Page 79 and 80: 68 Nuclear Weapons Testing
Page 81 and 82: 6 RADIATION WORKERS Introduction Th
Page 83 and 84: 72 Radiation Workers • 50 rem (0.
Page 85 and 86: 74 Radiation Workers work, reports
Page 87 and 88: 76 Radiation Workers Figure 6-5. A
Page 89 and 90: 78 Radiation Workers Figure 6-8. To
Page 93 and 94: 82 Radiation Workers Feed Material
Page 95 and 96: 84 Radiation Workers by Beral et al
Page 99 and 100: 88 Radiation Workers Table 6-1. Leu
Page 101 and 102: 90 Radiation Workers No
Page 103 and 104: 92 Radiation Workers N
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94 Radiation Workers S
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96 Radiation Workers ERR estim
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98 Mayak Workers Table 1. Dose (Gy)
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100 Mayak Workers workers at the ra
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102 Mayak Workers
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104 Uranium Miners enrichment facil
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106 Uranium Miners Samet et al. (19
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108 Uranium Miners were selected 12
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Uranium Miners 111
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9 RADIATION EXPOSURE IN FLIGHT The
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DNA damage (a chemical change in DN
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10 PRECONCEPTION EXPOSURES Several
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of risk in the lowest dose groups,
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found elevated solid cancer risk wi
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preconception doses between 2.5 and
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Table 10-1. Preconception irradiati
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Preconception Exposures 127
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Tracheoesophageal fistula and conge
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cancer were both associated with th
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0.10-4.71) while respiratory system
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elationship was not significant for
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times higher than in less-contamina
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Nuclear Power Accidents 139
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12 COMMUNITIES NEAR NUCLEAR FACILIT
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levels (this could not in itself be
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Figure 12-3. Native Americans from
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of leukemia was measured over a lar
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(RR 1.06; 1.00-1.11) and risks of s
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more that we can say about this app
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Communities Near Nuclear Facilities
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54 observed vs. 46.1 expected death
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13 DISCUSSION Our intention in crea
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myeloid leukemia) was significantly
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0.1-3.5 WLM; this is roughly equiva
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adon (Lubin et al. 1997). These res
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Leukemia Leukemia, a general term t
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vical cancer. The doses to these pa
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England have found it convenient to
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Thyroid disease Thyroid cancer is a
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1986 through 1995. These workers sh
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dence of this disease includes elev
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Analysis of preconception exposure
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Paternal age, education, drinking O
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Gardner et al. 1990 Employed at Sel
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we consider this group of a few hun
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Leukemia risk (excluding CLL) among
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Glossary of Terms for Epidemiology
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Glossary 199 Beta radiation: Stream
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Dosimetry: Measurement or estimatio
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Glossary 203 Hypothyroidism: The cl
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Glossary 205 Metastasis: 1. Movemen
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Glossary 207 waves, ultra violet (U
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Glossary 209 Thyroid Disease: disea
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Bibliography ATSDR. Public Health A
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Bhatia S, Sklar C. Second cancers i
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Bibliography 215 Cavallo D, Tomao P
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Bibliography 217 Department of Ener
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Bibliography 219 Gardner MJ, Hall A
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Haldorsen T, Reitan JB, Tveten U. C
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Bibliography 223 Howe GR, Nair R, N
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of Mayak, A comparison of numerical
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Bibliography 227 Laird NM. Thyroid
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control population. International J
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Bibliography 231 Neel JV, Schull WJ
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2003.160:381-407. Bibliography 233
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Bibliography 235 Saccomanno G, Auer
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Bibliography 237 analysis of cancer
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Bibliography 239 Tokarskaya ZB, Sco
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Journal of Epidemiology 1987.125(2)
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Actinium, 84 Acute lymphocytic leuk
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and Nevada Test Site, 60-61, 62 nuc
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Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, 185 Heal
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studies, 101-2 Medical exposure, 19
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(RERF), 43 Radiation Exposure Compe
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Viruses, 118, 154, 193 West Germany
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