Culture and Ecology of Chaco Canyon and the San Juan Basin

The Classic Adaptation 185which are 74 percent water, would have been mucheasier to transport in a dried state (Akins 1985:409).After reviewing studies examining energy and thetransport of food, Akins (1985:408) suggested thattrade probably was involved in the acquisition of meatfrom distances in excess of 10 km.Estimates of Available WaterNo matter how much arable land was available,it would be useful only if there was sufficient water tocover domestic use and construction needs, as well asfarming (Gwinn Vivian i992). Today, surface watercollects in pools at the confluence of the Chaco andEscavada washes. Ground water collects in seeps, inrincons, and in side canyons. Seasonal runoff collectsin potholes and tanks; it can be captured or diverted tofields.Drinking water may have been sufficient.Windes (1987[1]:39) identified four seeps in Cly'sCanyon. Samples from the Great Gambler's Spring(29S11791) had been analyzed by Judd (1954: 12), andby Windes. Both indicated that this water was exceptionally pure. Discharge rates calculated from samplescollected by Windes in mid-October were 4 L per day.At nearby seep 29SJ1752, discharge rates were 59 Lper day (in mid-May) and 69 L per day (in mid­October) during a wet year. Based on documentedneeds of soldiers in a dry environment and NewMexicans at rest, Windes thought that the four seepsin Cly's Canyon would support between 100 and 200permanent residents. Other seep basins appear alongthe cliff bases where the Cliff House Formation isexposed on the north mesa bench. Shallow wells inthe Escavada Wash would have provided considerablewater. The Chaco Wash could have been used, but itshigh mineral and salt content would have made itswater much less desirable to drink or use for irrigation(Windes 1987a[I]:37-42). Assuming a population of5,566 people living in the canyon, Gwinn Vivian(1992) thought that domestic needs could be met byutilizing the numerous seeps, shallow wells, bedrocktanks, and manmade reservoirs. If rules of use weresimilar to historic Hopi, members of either greathouses or small house sites could have managed theirown local supply. Hopi women are known to stay upall night to capture every drop of water during periodsof drought; they also manage water sources withlimited flows. Larger springs are under the control ofindividual clans who develop and clean the areas on aregular basis (Vivian 1992).Because construction could be delayed, GwinnVivian (1992) thought the timing of construction wasflexible. Using Lekson's (1984a) estimates for waterneeds during great house construction periods, Vivianproposed that small houses and class 1 great houseconstruction (a fairly regular, ongoing event) needscould have been met by using the water sources listedfor domestic use. Class II, class III, and class IV constructionneeds, however, would have requiredadvance plan,.ing, scheduling of seasonal labor, 3...Wldstorage of water in temporary ponds or reservoirs forshort periods. Ownership of stored resources by asocial group, such as a clan, for communal purposes,and a manager for great house labor units wereproposed.SummaryChaco Project investigators (e.g., Judge 1989;Schelberg 1982a) considered the canyon a stressfulenvironment in which to earn a living as anagriculturalist. Although storage of foods wouldprobably buffer short-term shortfalls in crop production,there were periods when decreased rainfallprobably induced at least minor changes in behavior toalleviate problems. Planting of crops in dune areasand locations where side drainages brought additionalwater to the land was practiced, but rainfall alone wasprobably insufficient to ensure crop production at alltimes. Construction of canals and gridded gardensmay have begun early and continued throughout theentire period, but dating these features is difficult. Nomatter how the land was used, the total acreageconsidered suitable for agriculture probably would nothave supported more than 4,000 people in the best ofcircumstances. People were able to make adjustments,either through increased mobility or trade, duringperiods of stress. The feasibility of these optionsdepends very much on the number of people living inthe canyon and the control they may have had overresources in the larger region.The Chacoan PeopleHow many people lived in Chaco Canyon, andhow healthy they were are topics that have intriguedvisitors and researchers since the great houses were