Culture and Ecology of Chaco Canyon and the San Juan Basin

Historic Period Studies 323information, beginning with that gleaned from recordsof early Spanish explorers of New Mexico through thefirst half of the twentieth century. He incorporatedinformation on climate, range conditions, and cropyields for years when it was available.Clues as to how the great houses may haveacquired Spanish names (Simpson 1850) were found inSpanish documents dating from 1823; they indicatethat Jose Antonio Vizcarra passed near Pueblo Pintado(also referred to as Pueblo del Raton), Cerrito Fajada,and El Penasco. Brugge (1980: 12-13) expected thatother Spanish rr.ilitary had been in the area and werewell acquainted with the ruins in Chaco Canyon.Continuing throughout this carefully researchedvolume, Brugge provides the names of people whoentered Chaco Canvon. and when. and whv. Included~--~----- ------- -----J---7---- -- - 7 '"are explorers and military troops; archaeologists;homesteaders; traders; Spanish and Anglo stockmen;Indian agents; land surveyors; and, most recently,those involved in extracting mineral resources fromthe surrounding land. As these outsiders began to usethe land, their actions and reactions with regard to theNavajo were based on their cultural backgrounds,which had different social and political orientationsfrom that of the local inhabitants. By the late nineteenthcentury, foreigners fully controlled the area;their rules and regulations brought a division of landsthat could be obtained as homesteads or throughallotments. The expansion of the railroad in the Westclaimed other territory in what is known as the"checkerboard" pattern. Discovery of mineral resources,such as coal, gas, and oil, which were foundon Navajo lands in the San Juan Basin, provided theimpetus for the organization of the Navajo tribalcouncil, with its chapters and chapter houses, to aidwith political organization of the tribal people dealingwith these issues. All these variables brought changesto the former Navajo lifestyle. Brugge's history endswith the final fencing of Chaco Canyon NationalMonument in 1946-1948. In his closing statement, henoted that many white ranchers have recently soldtheir lands to the Navajo tribe so that the Navajo havenow reclaimed much of the land around ChacoCanyon. Their way of life, however, has been greatlyaltered in the process. Brugge recognized that race,language, and culture are not always independentvariables; he demonstrates how Pueblo, Spanish, andAnglo-Americans are intertwined in the processes ofNavajo culture change.Brugge's research added much to our knowledgeabout Navajo history, as well as the interactionsbetween Spanish and Anglo herders and the Navajoduring the past century and their effects on Navajoculture. He provided several hypotheses about thebeginnings of certain practices; e.g., the introductionof the Blessingway and its acceptance by the Navajo.He suggested the existence of the clan system for over150 years. He documented the earlier reliance onagriculture and an increase on pastoralism throughtime.Although we still do not know exactly whenNavajo settled in the Chaco drainage, their presenceon Chacra Mesa in the early 1700s was confirmed.Early sites on Chacra Mesa did not manifest as manyPueblo features as those in the Gobernador area, andevidence for ritual is similarly less spectacular.Agriculture and pastoralism provided a way of life inthis outpost of Navajo culture. It was not until approximately1770, when the Spanish shifted alliance tothe Ute, that data in the Chaco area indicate participationin warfare that drove out neighboring Spanishcolonists. An extension of Navajo settlement fartherwest in Chaco Canyon seems to have taken place aboutthis time. The smallpox epidemic of 1781 is reflectedarchaeologically in the number of hogans that appearto have been abandoned and the drop in tree-ring datesthat indicate the construction of new homes. Ensuingwars throughout the next several decades probablybrought Spanish troops through the area, and the lackof datable Navajo remains suggests considerabledepopulation around Chaco. Brugge suspected frequentvisits and use by a few Navajo for hunting.Only after Anglo-American government tookover and peace ensued after the Long Walk to FortSumner does an influx of Spanish and Anglo herdersand traders appear in the area. Major changeswrought through the resulting intercultural interactionsincluded increased trade, some wage labor, the need toestablish claims to land, and eventually an increase incompetition for land use areas. As lands were fenced,many traditional Navajo ways were circumscribed andcultural changes were necessitated. Lands used bythree of the wealthiest Navajo stockmen-Navajo