Postharvest Biology and Technology of Fruits, Vegetables, and Flowers

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PHOSPHOLIPASE D, MEMBRANE DETERIORATION, AND SENESCENCE 233 originating from different receptors (ETR1, ETR2) and potentially interacting with one another, affecting internodal elongation and abscission independently from fruit ripening (Whitelaw et al., 2002). Results from several years of study in different laboratories enable us to propose a model for the signal transduction pathway between ethylene perception and the induction of senescence at the membrane level. Since calcium and calmodulin appeared to be involved in enhancing membrane deterioration (Paliyath et al., 1987; Paliyath and Thompson, 1987), the possible link between ethylene perception and phosphatidylinositol metabolism was investigated in carnation flowers based on the hypothesis that phosphorylation of PI to PIP 2 , phospholipase C action on PIP 2 -generating inositol trisphosphate (IP 3 ), and IP 3 -mediated calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum, were potentially the sequence of events in the signal transduction pathway. When exposed to ethylene, fully open carnation flowers showed visible symptoms of senescence within 6 h of treatment. Carnation flowers were incubated with radiolabeled phosphorus and treated with ethylene. The incorporation of radiolabel into the phospholipid fraction was followed soon after treatment. If there were a specific turnover in any phospholipids in response to ethylene, then there would be a specific enrichment of the radiolabel in that phospholipid (based on phospholipid phosphate). None of the phospholipids including phosphatidylinositol showed any significant enrichment in response to ethylene treatment, suggesting that phospholipid turnover, if it occurred, was restricted to sites close to the ethylene receptor, and may occur in very small amounts not quantifiable by the available techniques. As well, with a relatively low efficiency of calcium release by IP 3 and a very low phospholipase C activity, the proposed hypothesis was not supported. The recent results on the molecular properties of PLD enable us to propose an alternate mechanism that may mediate the ethylene signal transduction pathway (Fig. 9.21). Studies on animal systems show that PI-3-kinase is activated by receptor tyrosine kinases in response to primary stimuli, which leads to the production of PI (3,4)-bisphosphate and PI (3,4,5)-trisphosphate on the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane (Blomberg et al., 1999). These anionic domains are believed to be the anchoring sites for enzymes in the signal transduction pathway, such as phospholipase C, which possesses a PH superfold (plextrin homology domain). The presence of the C2 domain in PLD (analogous to the PH superfold) provides the structural feature necessary for the electrostatic binding of PLD to anionic sites created in the membrane in response to primary stimuli. Recent evidences suggest that PI is converted to its phosphorylated forms in response to primary stimuli through PI kinases (Heilman et al., 2001). Such anionic microdomains in the membrane could provide the anchoring region for PLD even in the absence of an increase in cytosolic calcium (Zheng et al., 2000). Generation of anionic microdomains specifically in the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane could generate a voltage across a localized region of the plasma membrane (hyperpolarization), and may open voltage-sensitive calcium channels, thus increasing the cytosolic calcium levels (Roberts and Tyerman, 2002). Since the binding of PLD to anionic domains is reversible and dependent on calcium (high micromolar calcium reverses binding) (Zheng et al., 2000), such binding may serve as an on/off switch regulating calcium release, through catabolism of phosphorylated phosphatidylinositols (depolarization) (Paliyath et al., 1995). A recent report also suggests that cyclic nucleotidegated nonselective cation channels (voltage independent) may be involved in programmed cell death in Arabidopsis (Kohler et al., 2001). PLD may bind to other domains of the membrane enriched in phosphatidylcholine/phosphatidylethanolamine, since this binding
234 POSTHARVEST BIOLOGY & TECHNOLOGY OF FRUITS, VEGETABLES, & FLOWERS Progressive stimulus-response mode Ethylene Ca ETR 2 P L D MT P L D Ca CTR1 MAPK cascade PI kinase P L D PLD PA DG Gene expression PL FFA FFOX H Ca X X Metabolon Ca Nucleus PI kinase PLD PL FFA PA DG Ca Ethylene ETR 1 Transient stimulus- response mode Fig. 9.21 A model describing potential events involved in the ethylene signal transduction pathway indicating the role of PLD. Ethylene binding to the receptor is proposed to activate a PI kinase that in turn results in the generation of a voltage difference across the membrane. Voltage-sensitive calcium channels may open in response to the voltage difference, increasing the cytosolic calcium level. PLD can bind to the membrane at the anionic domains created by PI-kinase activity or in response to the increased cytosolic calcium levels. In the progressive stimulusresponse model, the hormonal stimulation continues ultimately inactivating calcium and proton pumps (H-X, Ca-X). Excessive cytosolic calcium would ultimately cause senescence. In the transient stimulus-response model, cytosolic calcium level is maintained at homeostatic levels. Lipid catabolites are recycled back to phospholipids. ETR1 and ETR2 are designation of receptors with potentially distinct function. CTR-1 is a protein kinase that acts downstream from the receptor. PLD could exist as a metabolon (left bottom) in combination with phosphatidate phosphatase, calmodulin, and lipolytic acyl hydrolase, or even bound to microtubules (MT) (DG, diacylglycerol; FFA, free fatty acid; FFOX, fatty acid oxidation products; PA, phosphatidic acid; PL, phospholipid). is promoted by calcium. Under normal conditions of growth and development, this switch would be tightly regulated (transient stimulus-response model) due to cross talk with other signals (Lohrmann and Harter, 2002). After the initiation of a programmed senescence event (progressive stimulus-response model), such tight regulation could be lost and would eventually lead to high cytosolic calcium and lowered cytosolic pH, as the calcium ATPase and proton ATPase are inhibited, respectively (Paliyath and Thompson, 1988; Paliyath et al.,
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Postharvest Biology and Technology
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Edition first published 2008 c○ 2
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vi CONTENTS 9 Structural Deteriorat
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Contributors Ishan Adyanthaya Depar
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x CONTRIBUTORS Gopinadhan Paliyath
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xii PREFACE difficult to find a boo
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Chapter 1 Postharvest Biology and T
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POSTHARVEST BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY
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COMMON FRUITS, VEGETABLES, FLOWERS,
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Chapter 3 Biochemistry of Fruits Go
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF FRUITS 21 et al., 2
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF FRUITS 23 3.2.2 Lip
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF FRUITS 25 exposure
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF FRUITS 27 isoform o
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF FRUITS 29 Maltose
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF FRUITS 31 content i
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF FRUITS 33 control.
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF FRUITS 35 range fro
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF FRUITS 37 six (gluc
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF FRUITS 39 Ethylene
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF FRUITS 41 3.3.3 Pro
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF FRUITS 43 component
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Phenylalanine Phenylalanine ammonia
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF FRUITS 47 coloratio
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF FRUITS 49 Fluhr, R.
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Chapter 4 Biochemistry of Flower Se
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF FLOWER SENESCENCE 5
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PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH DURING PLANT
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(a) (a′) (b) (b′) (c) (d) Fig.
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Chapter 6 Ethylene Perception and G
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ETHYLENE PERCEPTION AND GENE EXPRES
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Chapter 7 Enhancing Postharvest She
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ENHANCING POSTHARVEST SHELF LIFE AN
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THE BREAKDOWN OF CELL WALL COMPONEN
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Table 8.3 Transgenic genetics to de
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ISOPRENOID BIOSYNTHESIS IN FRUITS A
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Chapter 14 Postharvest Treatments A
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POSTHARVEST TREATMENTS AFFECTING SE
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Chapter 15 Polyamines and Regulatio
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POLYAMINES AND REGULATION OF RIPENI
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Chapter 16 Postharvest Enhancement
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POSTHARVEST ENHANCEMENT OF PHENOLIC
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RHIZOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS 361 the
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RHIZOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS 363 Rese
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RHIZOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS 365 Tabl
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RHIZOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS 367 Toma
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RHIZOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS 369 Such
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RHIZOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS 371 Gian
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Chapter 18 Biotechnological Approac
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BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES 375 tec
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BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES 377 pro
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BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES 379 suc
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BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES 381 Fla
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BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES 383 adm
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BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES 389 Kik
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BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES 391 Tat
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POSTHARVEST FACTORS AFFECTING POTAT
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BIOSENSOR-BASED TECHNOLOGIES 419 20
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BIOSENSOR-BASED TECHNOLOGIES 421 Ta
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BIOSENSOR-BASED TECHNOLOGIES 425 Li
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BIOSENSOR-BASED TECHNOLOGIES 427 So
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BIOSENSOR-BASED TECHNOLOGIES 429 Pr
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BIOSENSOR-BASED TECHNOLOGIES 431 e
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BIOSENSOR-BASED TECHNOLOGIES 433 el
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BIOSENSOR-BASED TECHNOLOGIES 435 st
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Cl O O O OH Cl O OH Cl Cl Cl 2,4-Di
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BIOSENSOR-BASED TECHNOLOGIES 439 O
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BIOSENSOR-BASED TECHNOLOGIES 441 Le
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Chapter 21 Changes in Nutritional Q
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CHANGES IN NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF F
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Index Abscisic acid (ABA), 65, 210,
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INDEX 469 Biosensor-based technolog
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INDEX 471 Cryptochlorogenic acid (4
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INDEX 473 French bean, 95 Fresh-cut
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INDEX 475 LePLDα3 (AY013253), 213-
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INDEX 477 Pectin methylesterase (PM
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INDEX 479 PSY1 expression, 289 PSY1
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INDEX 481 Sugars, biosynthesis of,
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Postharvest Biology and Technology of Fruits, Vegetables, and Flowers

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