130925-studie-wildlife-comeback-in-europe

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3.14. Wolverine Gulo gulo Summary The Wolverine was historically widespread in Scandinavia and eastern Europe, but declined in distribution and abundance from the mid-19 th century due to intense persecution. Recovery started from as early as the 1970s in some countries, facilitated by legal protection, natural recolonisation, and the implementation of a conservation performance payment system. The species now occupies over one third of its historical range, but is still affected by high levels of culling in some areas, which are limiting expansion into the vast available areas of suitable habitat that the Wolverine requires. Background General description of the species The Wolverine (Gulo gulo), the largest terrestrial member of the Mustelidae family, has a circumpolar distribution, existing in large numbers in Canada and North America [2] . It is a solitary, generalist species that obtains food by scavenging or hunting, and caching food in summer and winter [3] . Due to special dentition and associated musculature, the Wolverine is able to forage on frozen meat and bone [1] . In Eurasia, the main prey is reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), with which it shares a sympatric distribution [3] . Depending on the location, its diet also includes larger ungulates such as deer (Cervus spp) and Eurasian elk (Alces alces), which are usually taken as carrion, as well as hare (Lepus spp), Ptarmigan (Lagopus muta) and rodents (Castor spp, Marmota spp, Microtus spp) [3] . Wolverines predate on domestic sheep and semi-domestic reindeer [4] , causing conflict with humans, for example in Scandinavia [5] . Distribution in Europe In the Upper Pleistocene, the Wolverine occurred as far South as the Czech Republic [6] and was widespread through central and eastern European countries including the United Kingdom, Denmark, France, Germany, Switzerland, Estonia, Latvia, Hungary and the Ukraine [7] . With progressive warming, the species retracted northwards into Scandinavia and Russia, but steep declines only began in the mid-1800s through intense human persecution [8] . The species was considered functionally extinct in southern Norway by the 1960s [9] and had declined in Sweden, Finland and Russia by the end of the 20 th century [1, 4, 8] . Since then, legislation has provided some protection in Scandinavia [8, 10] , although extensive culling is still employed in Norway [4] . Populations in Russia are declining and not well studied [11, 12] . 120
Scale Status Population trend Justification Threats Global [2] Least Concern Decreasing Widespread distribution Large population size 1. Residential & commercial development 2. Agriculture & aquaculture (livestock farming) 3. Transportation and service corridors 4. Hunting & persecution 5. Human disturbance Europe [12] Vulnerable Decreasing Small population size Declines outside the northern part of the range 1. Residential & commercial development 2. Agriculture & aquaculture (livestock farming) 3. Hunting & persecution 4. Human disturbance Europe – regional population Vulnerable: Sweden [23] Endangered: Norway [24] , Karelia [12] N/A Scandinavia [12] : Stable but small population, limited connectivity, genetically distinct Karelia [12] : Small and declining Scandinavia [12] : Hunting & persecution Karelia [12] : Poaching, Depletion of prey base Habitat preferences and general densities In Europe, the Wolverine has a broad range [1] , occurring primarily in boreal forest and tundra [4] . Because Wolverines exist at low densities [4] and have large home ranges, they require vast areas of suitable habitat for viable breeding populations [1] . Males have significantly larger home ranges, which overlap with females but are exclusive with other males [13] . Den sites are placed primarily in steep, rugged terrain with bare rock, which is some distance from infrastructure such as roads [14] . Wolverines select habitats that promote survival through limited encounters with humans but which are rich in prey, and this selection is stronger in winter [15] . The species occurs at extremely low densities of between 0.1 and 1.5 individuals per 100 km 2 [1] . Legal protection and conservation status The Wolverine is protected under the Habitats Directive (Annexes II and IV) in Sweden and Finland [16] and the Bern Convention (Appendix II) in all three Scandinavian countries [17] . Limited culls are undertaken in Sweden, and Norway heavily manages the species to control numbers [18] . Compensations schemes are in place for damages to semi-domesticated reindeer (all three countries) and sheep (Norway and Sweden) [18, 19] . Much of the biology and ecology of the Wolverine was not known until fairly recently, but highly cooperative research projects are now in place in Sweden [20] , Finland [21] , and Norway [18] to collect missing information about wolverine ecology, for instance assessing the impact of the species on reindeer, and exploring interactions with the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) [20, 22] . At a global level, the Wolverine is classified as Least Concern due to the species’ wide distribution and large population size, as well as on-going expansion into its former range (Table 1). However, densities remain low, and the overall species trend is believed to be declining in number despite signs of range recovery (Table 1). In Europe, the species is currently classified as Vulnerable with a decreasing population trend (Table 1). Despite this, extensive hunting quotas and lethal control, which are indirectly related to depredation conflicts, are implemented in Norway to decrease population size, while Sweden only culls the species at a very local level [4, 5] . Abundance and distribution: current status Recent population estimates suggest that the current European population comprises just over 2,600 individuals (Table 2), forming two populations between which there is believed to be some exchange [18] : the Karelian population (European Russia and eastern Finland) and the Scandinavian population (Sweden, Norway and the rest of Finland). At a country level, the largest populations occur in Russia and Sweden, which account for 53% and 26% of the European population respectively (Table 2). Smaller populations exist in Norway (15%) and Finland (6%). It should be noted, however, that the estimate for European Russia may be outdated. Of the largest population of the species in Russia (based on information from 2005), the majority occurred in the Komi Republic according to a pre-2000 estimate [1] . Although undoubtedly important in terms of size, the Russian population Table 1. Summary of Global and European Red List assessments and threats listed for the Wolverine. Table 2. Latest approximate population estimates for the Wolverine in Europe and for European populations. Please note that the estimate for European Russia may be outdated. Estimate Year assessed Reference Global No data - [2] Europe 2,630–2,640 2005–11 [11, 18] % of global population No data European Russia 1,400 2005 [11] Finland 165–175 2011 [18] Norway 385 2011 [18] Sweden 680 2011 [18] 121
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Stefanie Deinet Christina Ieronymid
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Wildlife comeback in Europe The rec
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Table of contents Foreword . . . .
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Foreword Shifting baselines In Euro
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The Adriatic coastline of the Veleb
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96 year old olive farmer with his d
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12
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Limitations of population trend dat
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Constructing historical distributio
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Red deer at the Oostvaardersplassen
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Table 2. Definitions of classificat
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3.1. European bison Bison bonasus S
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Table 2. Latest population estimate
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Figure 1c. Map highlighting areas o
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Rank Reason for change Description
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3.2. Alpine ibex Capra ibex Summary
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Figure 1a. Distribution of Alpine i
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% change 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Fig
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3.3. Iberian ibex Capra pyrenaica S
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Figure 1a. Distribution of Iberian
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3.4. Southern chamois Rupicapra pyr
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Figure 1a. Distribution of Southern
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3.5. Northern chamois Rupicapra rup
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Scale Status Population trend Justi
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% change 80 60 40 20 0 and Italy [2
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Subspecies balcanica Exploitation B
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3.6. Eurasian elk Alces alces Summa
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Figure 1a. Distribution of Eurasian
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Poland [10] and Estonia [28] . It i
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References 1. Geist, V. 1998. Deer
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3.7. Roe deer Capreolus capreolus S
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Estimate Year assessed Reference Gl
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Page 74 and 75: Recent developments As discussed ab
Page 76 and 77: 3.8. Red deer Cervus elaphus Summar
Page 78 and 79: Estimate Year assessed Reference Gl
Page 80 and 81: % change 750 600 450 300 150 0 Figu
Page 82 and 83: lineages for the local area and min
Page 84 and 85: 3.9. Wild boar Sus scrofa Summary T
Page 88 and 89: Abundance and distribution: changes
Page 90 and 91: References 1. IUCN 2011a. The IUCN
Page 92 and 93: 3.10. Golden jackal Canis aureus Su
Page 96 and 97: Recent developments Table 3. Major
Page 98 and 99: 3.11. Grey wolf Canis lupus Summary
Page 102 and 103: Drivers of recovery Figure 2. Distr
Page 104 and 105: References 1. Mech, L.D. & Boitani,
Page 106 and 107: 3.12. Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx Summa
Page 110 and 111: % change 750 600 450 300 150 0 Figu
Page 112 and 113: Figure 3. Map of recent development
Page 114 and 115: 3.13. Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus Su
Page 116 and 117: Figure 1a. Distribution of the Iber
Page 118 and 119: Table 3. Major reasons for positive
Page 120 and 121: 18. IUCN 2011b. European Red List.
Page 124 and 125: Figure 1a. Distribution of Wolverin
Page 126 and 127: Rank Reason for change Description
Page 128 and 129: 3.15. Grey seal Halichoerus grypus
Page 130 and 131: Estimate assessed Reference Global
Page 132 and 133: % change 1500 1200 900 600 300 0 Fi
Page 134 and 135: 3.16. Harbour seal Phoca vitulina S
Page 136 and 137: east coast, the distribution is res
Page 138 and 139: % change 200 150 100 50 0 populatio
Page 140 and 141: Figure 3. Map of recent development
Page 142 and 143: 3.17. Brown bear Ursus arctos Summa
Page 144 and 145: Table 2. Latest population estimate
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Page 148 and 149: Recent developments % change 200 15
Page 150 and 151: mation, e.g. between Slovenia and C
Page 152 and 153: 3.18. Eurasian beaver Castor fiber
Page 156 and 157: % change 20,000 16,000 12,000 200 1
Page 158 and 159: Table 3. Major reasons for change i
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Page 162 and 163: 4.1. Pink-footed goose Anser brachy
Page 164 and 165: Table 2. Major threats that drove P
Page 166 and 167: 4.2. Barnacle goose Branta leucopsi
Page 168 and 169: Figure 2. Current breeding and wint
Page 170 and 171: Table 3. Conservation actions in pl
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4.3. Whooper swan Cygnus cygnus Sum
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Threat Description Impact Hunting a
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4.4. White-headed duck Oxyura leuco
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No. of individuals 5000 4500 4000 3
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educing the population in the count
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4.5. White stork Ciconia ciconia Su
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Country No. of breeding pairs Trend
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Action Description Impact Monitorin
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4.6. Eurasian spoonbill Platalea le
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Country No. of breeding pairs No. o
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Threat Description Impact Residenti
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4.7. Dalmatian pelican Pelecanus cr
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194
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Table 3 Major threats that drove th
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4.8. Lesser kestrel Falco naumanni
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Figure 2. Current distribution of L
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Action Description Impact Livelihoo
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4.9. Saker falcon Falco cherrug Sum
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Table 2. Latest Saker falcon popula
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Action Description Impact Planning
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4.10. Peregrine falcon Falco peregr
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No. of breeding pairs 1,600 1,200 8
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Action Description Impact Legislati
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4.11. Red kite Milvus milvus Summar
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Country No. of breeding pairs Trend
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4.12. White-tailed eagle Haliaeetus
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Country No. of breeding pairs Year
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References 1. Bijleveld, M. 1974 Bi
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4.13. Bearded vulture Gypaetus barb
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Figure 2. Current distribution of B
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4.14. Griffon vulture Gyps fulvus S
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Figure 2. Current distribution of G
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4.15. Cinereous vulture Aegypius mo
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Figure 2. Current distribution of C
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4.16. Spanish imperial eagle Aquila
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Threat Description Impact Transport
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Drivers of recovery The spectacular
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4.17. Eastern imperial eagle Aquila
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Figure 2. Current distribution of E
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252
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4.18. Common crane Grus grus Summar
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Figure 2. Current breeding and wint
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Action Monitoring and planning Site
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4.19. Roseate tern Sterna dougallii
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Threat Description Impact Human int
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264
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337,539 2,000 20,000 >163,750 % abu
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1950s 1980s Present 50km grid Speci
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No. of species 1 2 3 4 5 6 > 6 No.
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272
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A Range change B Range change C Ran
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Reason for positive change Species
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Dalmatian pelicans at the Kerkini L
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280
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The comeback of large and charismat
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A safari group in the Velebit mount
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The view from a bear watching hide
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species [44] [45] and if animals be
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One of the challenges around increa
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Box 1. Return and urbanization of w
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Table 1. Livestock damage by mammal
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key tool for wildlife population in
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Some of the over 500,000 visitors a
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Box 2. The native versus alien spec
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References 1. Navarro, L.M. and H.M
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113. Potena, G., et al., Brown Bear
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Appendix 1. Sources of distribution
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Acknowledgements This study on wild
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