130925-studie-wildlife-comeback-in-europe

Ongoing threats include habitat loss and degradation
[2, 6, 17, 58–60] , human disturbance, especially as
a result of forestry operations and access [2, 6, 42, 60, 61] ,
and persecution [2, 6] [2, 6, 54, 62–65]
, accidental poisoning
and collision with wind turbines and overhead
cables [2, 63, 66–68] (Table 3). Collision with and electrocution
by overhead cables is the most important
cause of unnatural mortality in juvenile and
sub-adult White-tailed eagles in Norway [32, 69] ,
while collision with wind turbines at the Smøla
wind power plant in Norway is a significant cause
of mortality of adult birds [66, 67] . Although the
effects of collisions are local, the mortality and
habitat displacement caused by the wind power
plant have resulted in reduced White-tailed eagle
breeding success [70] . Future development of wind
power plants may have potentially high impact
on White-tailed eagle populations over the long
term [32] .
Drivers of recovery
Legal protection of White-tailed eagles and their
nests and the ban of DDT and other harmful
chemicals since the 1970s have resulted in recovery,
recolonisation and expansion, contributing to the
comeback of the species in Europe [2, 6, 42–44] . Other
management interventions include reintroductions,
as well as winter feeding, artificial nest
construction, monitoring and public awareness
campaigns.
The exclusion of DDT from agriculture and
forestry in the early 1970s was followed by
successful reproduction and an increase in
White-tailed eagle numbers [e.g. 55, 72]. Supplementary
feeding contributes to increased juvenile
overwinter survival [46, 65, 73–75] , resulting in population-level
benefits. Protection of nests from disturbance
has also proved important for breeding
success [ 44, 76].
Reintroduction programmes have contributed
to increases in the Czech Republic [13] and
Scotland [14, 77, 78] , while the success of the programme
in Ireland [79, 80] remains to be seen. Many Whitetailed
eagles reintroduced to Ireland have been lost
to illegal persecution [81] , but the first eaglets since
the species became nationally extinct in the early
1900s fledged in 2013 [82] . Plans for a reintroduction
of the species to Suffolk, England, were withdrawn
in 2010 due to financial cut backs [83] .
Natural recolonisation and expansion has also
taken place in a number of countries, including
Germany [84] , Denmark [15] and the Netherlands,
where a pair of White-tailed eagles began breeding
in Oostvaardersplassen in 2006 [85] and by 2013
there were seven pairs in the country [31, 86] .
Threat Description Impact
Wood and pulp
plantations
Ecosystem conversion and degradation reduces
availability of suitable nesting habitat.
Disturbance of nesting birds by forestry
operations.
Forestry roads cause habitat fragmentation and
disturbance, especially in the Danube region.
Medium to high
Residential and
commercial
development
Natural systems
modifications
Hunting and
collecting of
terrestrial animals
Unintentional
effects of hunting
and collecting
Pollution
Human intrusions
and disturbance
Transportation
and service
corridors
Renewable
energy
Unintentional
effects of Fishing
and harvesting
aquatic resources
Agricultural
intensification
Climate change
and severe
weather
Ecosystem conversion and degradation.
Increased disturbance, resulting in reduced
productivity.
Ecosystem conversion and degradation through
river regulations and drainage of wetlands.
Persecution and illegal hunting, especially in
central and southern Europe and parts of Asia.
Unintentional effects of poisoned baits put out to
kill foxes and other vermin.
Unintentional effects of lead poisoning from
ingested ammunition.
Ecosystem conversion and degradation through
secondary poisoning from pesticides and
pollutants, causing mortality and impaired
reproduction.
Disturbance of nests through increased tourism
and recreation.
Accidental mortality by collision with and
electrocution by overhead cables.
Accidental mortality by collision with trains and
cars.
Table 4. Conservation actions in place for White-tailed eagle.
Action
Monitoring and
planning
Accidental mortality due to collisions with wind
turbines.
Reduction of prey base through overfishing.
Ecosystem conversion and degradation of
wetlands.
Increasing precipitation in Greenland has
probably had a negative effect on breeding
success.
Medium to high
Potentially
medium to high
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium to low
High
Low to medium
Potentially high
Table 3. Major threats that drove White-tailed eagle decline and may still
constrain the population [2, 6, 32, 52–54] .
Site/area
protection
Site/area
management
Species
reintroduction
Species recovery
Legislation
Education and
awareness
Low
Low
Low
Description
International Species Action Plan [2] .
Species Action Plan for the Danube region [6] .
Systematic monitoring schemes in some countries, e.g. Finland,
Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Sweden,
United Kingdom [2] , as well as transnational surveys and an ongoing
international colour ringing programme [54] .
There are 760 IBAs identified for White-tailed eagle in Europe, of
which 56% are fully designated as SPAs or other protected areas and
15% not protected.
Nest protection [2, 6] .
Reintroduction programmes in place in Scotland and Ireland.
Supplementary winter feeding.
Artificial nest platform creation [e.g. 65, 71] .
Listed under a number of international conventions and agreements
(see ‘Legal protection and conservation status’).
Public awareness campaigns [e.g. 19] .
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