130925-studie-wildlife-comeback-in-europe

contraction of the species’ range is most prevalent
in central and eastern Europe, but also in parts of
the UK and France (Figure 3). However, recolonisations
of numerous areas are apparent, and within
the species’ distribution in Europe and elsewhere,
Peregrine falcons are increasingly expanding their
habitat use to include urban areas [4, 12] .
Major threats
The most important cause of the worldwide
decline in Peregrine falcon populations was the
use of organochlorine chemicals in agriculture [10] .
Biomagnification of these pollutants in
Peregrine falcons resulted in reduced productivity,
through embryo mortality and eggshell
breakage [74, 75] . In the UK, the pattern of the decline
matched geographical variation in the intensity
of pesticide use [35] , while declines were also more
pronounced in agricultural areas in France [76] ,
Germany and Fennoscandia [10] .
Illegal nest robbing was also an important
limiting factor, acting on an already declining
population, especially in Germany and
Switzerland [10] , but also in Italy [77] , Spain [78, 79] and
Britain, where it is an ongoing threat [4] . Peregrine
falcons have long been persecuted by humans,
as a result of conflicts with game keeping, such
as grouse moors in the UK [35] . This remains a
threat today, despite the full legal protection of
the species [80] . Persecution to protect Domestic
pigeons has also had in impact on Peregrine
falcons [4, 41, 78, 81] , and in the UK the decline suffered
by the species during World War 2 was the result
of direct persecution by the military to prevent
predation of messenger pigeons [12] . Peregrines are
also shot illegally by recreational hunters, particularly
in the Mediterranean [16, 77] .
Drivers of recovery
The ban on the use of organochlorines in
agriculture and the increased protection of the
species enabled substantial recovery of Peregrine
falcons in Europe from the 1980s [10] . Reintroduction
efforts, initiated thanks to artificial breeding
techniques developed by falconers [2] , enabled the
recolonisation and recovery in Switzerland [26] ,
Sweden [11] , Poland [25, 30] , as well as colonisation of
Moscow by reintroduced birds [2] . The reintroductions
in Germany [15, 83] resulted in recovery in
southern and eastern Germany, but also of the
Austrian, Slovakian, Czech and Hungarian populations
[13, 23] . Reintroduced Peregrine falcons form the
remaining tree-nesting population in Germany
Country No. of breeding pairs Year %
Albania 100 2000 [8] 1
Andorra 4 2000 [8]
Austria 224–324 2009 [46] 2
Belgium 80 2013 [47] 1
Bosnia & Herzegovina
Regular breeder, but no
population size estimate
2012 [48]
Bulgaria 200 2009 [18] 1
Croatia 160–200 2009 [49] 1
Cyprus 50–60 2013 [50]
Czech Republic 60–70 2013 [51]
Denmark 3 2007 [19]
Finland 260 2010 [52] 2
France 1,160–1,500 2008 [53] 9
Germany 1,000 2009 [54] 7
Greece 316 2000 [8] 2
Hungary 30–40 2013 [23]
Republic of Ireland 450–500 2011 [55] 3
Italy 1,100–1,400 2009 [56] 9
Liechtenstein 1–2 2013 [57]
Luxembourg 1–2 2010 [58]
FYRO Macedonia 87 2000 [8] 1
Malta 1 2000 [8]
Netherlands 112 2012 [59] 1
Norway 800–1,000 2006 [60] 6
Poland 20 2013 [2]
Portugal 75–110 2008 [61] 1
Romania 150–300 2013 [62] 2
Russia 1,500–2,000 2009 [63] 12
Serbia 50–70 2013 [64]
Slovakia 150–180 2012 [65] 1
Slovenia 90–115 2010 [66] 1
Spain 2,462–2,804 2008 [67] 19
Sweden 232–332 2012 [68] 2
Switzerland 300–400 2010 [69] 2
UK 1,500 2009 [44] 11
Ukraine 120–130 2009 [70, 71] 1
Table 2. Latest Peregrine falcon population estimates in Europe, indicating
those countries that hold at least 1% of the European population.
Table 3. Major threats that drove Peregrine falcon decline and may still
constrain the population.
Threat Description Impact
Pollution from Organochlorine pesticides reduced productivity. Historically
agriculture
critical
Hunting and
collecting
Human intrusions
and disturbance
Climate change
and severe
weather
Persecution due to conflict with game and pigeon
keeping.
Nest robbing for egg collecting.
Nest robbing for falconry.
Illegal shooting by hunters for recreation.
Disturbance by recreational activities, e.g. rock
climbing.
Poor weather conditions can result in poor
productivity [41] .
High
Historically high
Historically
medium
Medium
Medium
Low
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