130925-studie-wildlife-comeback-in-europe

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Reason for positive change Species management Legislation Other Land/water protection & management Figure 13. Reasons for resurgence for the 18 mammal species in this study. Horizontal bar shows the proportion of species/populations for which each reason was identified. Education 0 5 10 15 20 No. of species Reasons for species recovery Primary reason Secondary reason Tertiary reason Overall, drivers of recovery reflect to a degree the main threats that caused historical declines. As such, legal protection (e.g. from overexploitation and persecution, as well as site protection) and targeted conservation action, were the overarching reasons for species comeback. Here we provide a more detailed overview of reasons for recovery for mammals and birds separately. Drivers of mammal species recovery The data reveal that mammal species comeback tends to rely on a variety of factors. However, for 16 of the 18 mammal species in the study, species management (e.g. reintroductions, compensation schemes, changes in hunting regimes) was cited as one of the top three reasons for recovery, followed by legal protection (13 out of 18 species; Figure 13). Furthermore, both emerged as the most frequently cited primary reason for an increase in abundance over the study period, probably because legal protection of species is likely to lead to better species management in order to comply with legislation. Actively boosting existing or setting up new populations, via translocations and reintroductions, was the foremost type of species management linked to increased abundances, cited for 10 of the 18 mammal species as amongst the top three reasons for comeback. Management to reduce non-natural mortality, such as via changes to hunting regimes and management to decrease levels of persecution, was amongst the top three reasons for comeback for five species, including Harbour and Grey seals. Changes in hunting practice may frequently be due to legal protection as well, but we kept these categories Box 1: How many should there be? Historic baselines for wildlife populations For many thousands of years, humans have been present in Europe and have made use of its living resources for food, clothing, medicines and fuel. The status of European wildlife is therefore part of a dynamic and changing system, and current trends in European wildlife need to be interpreted against a sound understanding of the magnitude and drivers of past changes. There is a great need to appreciate historic sizes of wildlife populations in order to gauge how wildlife populations in Europe are changing today. This baseline level, against which current and future wildlife populations can be measured, provides us with the means to make accurate assessments of our successes, or failures, in wildlife conservation. The field of historical ecology, used in order to reconstruct past changes, is developing rapidly. Only recently have scientists started to unravel the long-term impacts of humans on wildlife. For long-term trends in biodiversity, there often remains little option but to set baselines to the point at which systematic data collection was started, since long-term data sets are frequently lacking [1] . This is highly undesirable, as systems have often undergone dramatic change by the time monitoring programmes start. Typically, for ecological data like estimates of population abundance, good records began around the 1960s- 1970s. There are limited examples of longer-term abundance datasets that precede this time period [1, 2] , though sometimes inferences can be made using ancillary information (e.g. [3] ). For occurrence or sighting data, there is a greater depth of historical records from which inference on the changing state of nature can be drawn. Resources such as museum specimens, archaeological records and literature monographs can all provide an enhanced historical record, though any inherent bias must be carefully accounted for to gain an accurate picture of the historical distribution of species [4] . References 1. Willis, K.J., Arauo, M.B., Bennett, K.D., Figueroa- Rangel, B., Froyd, C.A. & Myers, N. 2007. How can a knowledge of the past help to conserve the future? Biodiversity conservation and the relevance of long-term ecological studies. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 362: 175–186. 2. Collen, B., Loh, J., Whitmee, S., McRae, L., AMin, R. & Baillie, J.E.M. 2009. Monitoring change in vertebrate abundance: the Living Planet Index. Conservation Biology 23: 317–327. 3. Rosenberg, A.A., Bolster, W.J., Alexander, K.E., Leavenworth, W.B., Cooper, A.B. & McKenzie, M.G. 2005. The history of ocean resources: modeling cod biomass using historical records. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 3: 84–90. 4. Boakes, E.H., McGowan, P.K.J., Fuller, R.A., Changquing, D., Clark, N.E., O’Connor, K. & Mace, G.M. 2010. Distorted views of biodiversity: spatial and temporal bias in species occurrence data. PLoS Biology 8: e1000385. 276
12 10 No. of species 8 6 4 2 0 Habitat management/ restoration Reintroduction Protection from shooting Site/habitat protection Compensation/ subsidies Anti-poisoning campaigns Habitat shift Suplementary feeding Improved climate Control of problematic species Ban on organochlorines Figure 14. Main drivers of recovery across bird species. separate because changing in hunting practices tend to relate more to the establishment of sustainable harvesting, as opposed to an outright ban on exploitation. Drivers of bird species recovery Two of the most frequent drivers of recovery of bird species were protection from shooting and habitat management and restoration (Figure 14), including wetland restoration, protection of nest sites, and mitigation of mortality caused by collision with and electrocution by power lines. Targeted conservation actions, including species reintroductions and species recovery management, including supplementary feeding and artificial nest boxes, have contributed to the comeback of 15 of the species considered in this study. In most cases, implementation of these conservation activities are promoted by Species Action Plans (SAPs) produced and endorsed by the European Union (EU) under the Birds Directive, and also by the Bern Convention, the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) (see ‘Introduction’). Whether in the form of SAPs or other conservation programmes, all 19 species benefitted from monitoring and planning activities, although coverage across species’ ranges varies. Protected areas are also in place for all the species, covering on average nearly 70% of the area of key sites for each (identified as Important Bird Areas, IBAs) [3] , but the coverage of designation, as well as enforcement, varies both between species (Figure 15) and across countries. Figure 15. The mean coverage of area of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) by protected areas. Whiskers are the standard error of the mean and the number of IBAs identified for each species in Europe is shown above the bars. 100 Mean % area of IBAs protected 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 146 371 737 70 894 308 119 231 134 1,004 641 760 125 289 90 53 247 927 53 10 0 Pink-footed goose Barnacle goose Whooper swan White-headed duck White stork Eurasian spoonbill Dalmatian pelican Lesser kestrel Saker falcon Peregrine falon Red kite White-tailed eagle Bearded vulture Griffon vulture Cinereous vulture Spanish Imperial eagle Eastern Imperial eagle Common crane Roseate tern 277
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Stefanie Deinet Christina Ieronymid
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Wildlife comeback in Europe The rec
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Table of contents Foreword . . . .
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Foreword Shifting baselines In Euro
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The Adriatic coastline of the Veleb
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96 year old olive farmer with his d
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12
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Limitations of population trend dat
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Constructing historical distributio
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Red deer at the Oostvaardersplassen
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Table 2. Definitions of classificat
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22
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3.1. European bison Bison bonasus S
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Table 2. Latest population estimate
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Figure 1c. Map highlighting areas o
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Rank Reason for change Description
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3.2. Alpine ibex Capra ibex Summary
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Figure 1a. Distribution of Alpine i
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% change 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Fig
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3.3. Iberian ibex Capra pyrenaica S
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Figure 1a. Distribution of Iberian
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3.4. Southern chamois Rupicapra pyr
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Figure 1a. Distribution of Southern
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3.5. Northern chamois Rupicapra rup
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Scale Status Population trend Justi
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% change 80 60 40 20 0 and Italy [2
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Subspecies balcanica Exploitation B
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3.6. Eurasian elk Alces alces Summa
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Figure 1a. Distribution of Eurasian
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Poland [10] and Estonia [28] . It i
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References 1. Geist, V. 1998. Deer
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3.7. Roe deer Capreolus capreolus S
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Estimate Year assessed Reference Gl
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Figure 2. Change in Roe deer popula
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Recent developments As discussed ab
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3.8. Red deer Cervus elaphus Summar
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% change 750 600 450 300 150 0 Figu
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lineages for the local area and min
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3.9. Wild boar Sus scrofa Summary T
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Abundance and distribution: changes
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References 1. IUCN 2011a. The IUCN
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3.10. Golden jackal Canis aureus Su
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Recent developments Table 3. Major
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3.11. Grey wolf Canis lupus Summary
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Drivers of recovery Figure 2. Distr
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References 1. Mech, L.D. & Boitani,
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3.12. Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx Summa
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% change 750 600 450 300 150 0 Figu
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Figure 3. Map of recent development
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3.13. Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus Su
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Figure 1a. Distribution of the Iber
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Table 3. Major reasons for positive
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18. IUCN 2011b. European Red List.
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3.14. Wolverine Gulo gulo Summary T
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Figure 1a. Distribution of Wolverin
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3.15. Grey seal Halichoerus grypus
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Estimate assessed Reference Global
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% change 1500 1200 900 600 300 0 Fi
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3.16. Harbour seal Phoca vitulina S
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east coast, the distribution is res
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% change 200 150 100 50 0 populatio
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Figure 3. Map of recent development
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3.17. Brown bear Ursus arctos Summa
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Table 2. Latest population estimate
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144
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Recent developments % change 200 15
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mation, e.g. between Slovenia and C
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3.18. Eurasian beaver Castor fiber
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% change 20,000 16,000 12,000 200 1
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Table 3. Major reasons for change i
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4.1. Pink-footed goose Anser brachy
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Table 2. Major threats that drove P
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4.2. Barnacle goose Branta leucopsi
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Figure 2. Current breeding and wint
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Table 3. Conservation actions in pl
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4.3. Whooper swan Cygnus cygnus Sum
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Threat Description Impact Hunting a
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4.4. White-headed duck Oxyura leuco
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No. of individuals 5000 4500 4000 3
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educing the population in the count
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4.5. White stork Ciconia ciconia Su
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Country No. of breeding pairs Trend
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Action Description Impact Monitorin
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4.6. Eurasian spoonbill Platalea le
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Country No. of breeding pairs No. o
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Threat Description Impact Residenti
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4.7. Dalmatian pelican Pelecanus cr
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Table 3 Major threats that drove th
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4.8. Lesser kestrel Falco naumanni
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Figure 2. Current distribution of L
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Action Description Impact Livelihoo
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4.9. Saker falcon Falco cherrug Sum
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Table 2. Latest Saker falcon popula
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Action Description Impact Planning
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4.10. Peregrine falcon Falco peregr
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No. of breeding pairs 1,600 1,200 8
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Action Description Impact Legislati
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4.11. Red kite Milvus milvus Summar
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Country No. of breeding pairs Trend
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Action Description Impact Monitorin
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4.12. White-tailed eagle Haliaeetus
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Country No. of breeding pairs Year
Page 228 and 229: References 1. Bijleveld, M. 1974 Bi
Page 230 and 231: 4.13. Bearded vulture Gypaetus barb
Page 232 and 233: Figure 2. Current distribution of B
Page 234 and 235: 4.14. Griffon vulture Gyps fulvus S
Page 236 and 237: Figure 2. Current distribution of G
Page 238 and 239: Action Description Impact Monitorin
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Page 242 and 243: Figure 2. Current distribution of C
Page 244 and 245: 4.16. Spanish imperial eagle Aquila
Page 246 and 247: Threat Description Impact Transport
Page 248 and 249: Drivers of recovery The spectacular
Page 250 and 251: 4.17. Eastern imperial eagle Aquila
Page 252 and 253: Figure 2. Current distribution of E
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Page 256 and 257: 4.18. Common crane Grus grus Summar
Page 258 and 259: Figure 2. Current breeding and wint
Page 260 and 261: Action Monitoring and planning Site
Page 262 and 263: 4.19. Roseate tern Sterna dougallii
Page 264 and 265: Threat Description Impact Human int
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Page 268 and 269: 337,539 2,000 20,000 >163,750 % abu
Page 270 and 271: 1950s 1980s Present 50km grid Speci
Page 272 and 273: No. of species 1 2 3 4 5 6 > 6 No.
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Page 276 and 277: A Range change B Range change C Ran
Page 280 and 281: Dalmatian pelicans at the Kerkini L
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Page 284 and 285: The comeback of large and charismat
Page 286 and 287: A safari group in the Velebit mount
Page 288 and 289: The view from a bear watching hide
Page 290 and 291: species [44] [45] and if animals be
Page 292 and 293: One of the challenges around increa
Page 294 and 295: Box 1. Return and urbanization of w
Page 296 and 297: Table 1. Livestock damage by mammal
Page 298 and 299: key tool for wildlife population in
Page 300 and 301: Some of the over 500,000 visitors a
Page 302 and 303: Box 2. The native versus alien spec
Page 304 and 305: References 1. Navarro, L.M. and H.M
Page 306 and 307: 113. Potena, G., et al., Brown Bear
Page 308 and 309: Appendix 1. Sources of distribution
Page 310: Acknowledgements This study on wild
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