Transportation's Role in Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions ...

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Transportations Role in Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Volume 2 offset to some degree by an increase in the demand for professional MAC service. This type of legislation is meeting resistance in California because it may disproportionately target low-income citizens as these individuals make up a significant percentage of the DIY market. In addition, there would be an overall loss of utility as some people would choose to go without air conditioning. A refill deposit program would have fewer barriers to implementation, although it would likely be somewhat less effective. In this case, refrigerant suppliers would need to expand their delivery logistics to include the reclamation of used containers from retail outlets that receive their products. Environmental fees on DIY small cans would have primarily legislative barriers to implementation (CARB, 2008c). California has chosen a refill can deposit program in which cans must be self sealing, and an $11 deposit is added to the purchase price of the can and refunded when the container is returned intact. According to CARB, this strategy has the most favorable cost/benefit ratio and avoids the issue of unfairly targeting lowerincome motorists. In addition, strategies that target servicing and EOL emissions also can impact reductions substantially in the near term, unlike those measures involving MAC system modifications which require time for new vehicles to penetrate the fleet. The feasibility of alternative refrigerants is based on their safety, efficiency, and cost characteristics. While HFC-1234yf has a low GWP and its associated system is efficient, it does have a high material cost and is flammable. HFC-152a also is flammable, and it is more toxic than HFC-1234yf and HFC-134a. Currently, many States prohibit toxic or flammable refrigerants. However, renewed interest in these refrigerants is prompting a review of these requirements. The automotive community is working on designs to minimize the risks of toxicity and flammability, and the literature suggests a consensus that these problems can be overcome. R-744, or CO2, can be toxic to passengers in the case of a sudden system depressurization, and requires significant and expensive changes to the designs of MAC systems. This is because these systems will not use gas-to-liquid phase change as is typically the case in conventional refrigeration cycles. Because of this, R-744 systems are not as effective in warm climates and they are not as efficient, resulting in higher fuel consumption for cooling (Andersen, 2008). Finally, as discussed above, the CO2 emissions associated with MAC-related engine loads are comparable to, or even more significant than, the actual refrigerant impacts. As such, evaluations of alternative refrigerant options must include a careful evaluation of differential engine load impacts before settling on a preferred strategy. The move to an alternative refrigerant could take place in a manner similar to the change from R-12 to HFC-134a that occurred in the early 1990s. It is estimated that the conversion to HFC-134a cost automotive manufacturers and the service industry $8.5 billion, while the next change to a new refrigerant could cost over $40 billion. It is important that this conversion is performed at least at the national-level, and possibly at the internationallevel in order to keep costs to industry reasonable. According to the literature, the choice of refrigerant does not appear to be driven by cost. Each refrigerant’s advantages and disadvantages are significant enough to outweigh cost differences among them. The EU set a date for HFC-134a phase out before there was agreement on which refrigerant would be the best alternative. While the EU assumes that a new refrigerant will have any remaining technical issues resolved by this time, determining the preferred refrigerant in 3-123
Transportations Role in Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Volume 2 advance may facilitate integration of refrigerant production, MAC system manufacturing, and system servicing requirements, even if it requires a longer timeframe. Adoption of alternative refrigerant systems has additional uncertainties that could have significant impacts on net GHG reduction potential. For instance, different refrigerant systems may have different baseline leak rates, possibly due to different system pressures and/or charge capacities. In addition, given the sensitivity of GHG emissions to ACinduced engine load (estimated to be between 2.5 and 7.5 percent of total vehicle energy consumption; IPCC, 2007 page 339), changes in compressor sizing and engine load from adoption of alternate systems could prove important as well. Solar reflective paints and glazings are being developed and tested for longevity, appearance, and IR efficiency. Cost is another limit to feasibility. Secondary loop systems also encounter barriers because of their increased cost, weight, and complexity, but as small vehicle efficiency gains become more important, these barriers may become less significant. In addition, an industry-wide changeover to a toxic refrigerant could encourage the move to secondary loop systems for safety reasons, although they can make systems using any refrigerant more efficient. 3-124
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Acknowledgments Transportation's Ro
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Table of Contents Transportation's
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List of Figures Transportation's Ro
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Transportation's Role in Reducing U
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1.0 Introduction Transportation's R
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Induced Travel Demand Transportatio
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3.11 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS Transporta
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Table 3.5 Findings by Strategy: Sys
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Strategy Name Travel Activity Commu
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6.0 Conclusion Transportation's Rol
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Printed on paper containing recycle
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Transportation’s Role in Reducing
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1.0 Introduction Transportation’s
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2.0 Low-Carbon Fuels Table of Conte
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List of Tables Transportation’s R
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� 2.1 Summary Overview of Low-Car
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Effects on Infrastructure Funding T
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Tax and tariff policy also can affe
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In 2006, approximately 43,000 mediu
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Market Penetration Transportation
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� 2.5 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LP
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Development of a Hydrogen Infrastru
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� 2.9 Electricity Overview Many o
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Feasibility Transportation’s Role
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� 2.10 References Transportation
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Transportations Role in Reducing U.
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Component Shares in Total Price Tra
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