mass-communication-theory

74 Section 2 The Era of Mass Society and Mass Culture
OVERVIEW
muckraker
Crusading journalist,
typically
challenging the
powerfulonbehalf
of those less so
propaganda
No-holds-barred
use of communication
to propagate
specific
beliefs and
expectations
as Progressivism tried to help immigrants in the late 1800s, but, unfortunately,
most of these recent arrivals don’t seem to respond well to efforts designed to help
them. They reject both Conservative and Progressive efforts to reform them. Resistance
grows ever more determined and is accompanied by violence on both sides.
Labor unions are organized to oppose the power of monopoly capitalists. Strikes
become increasingly common and violent. Now what do you do? You could become
a prohibitionist and successfully ban the sale of liquor. But this only creates
a market for bootleggers, strengthening rather than reducing the power of organized
crime. Political party bosses flourish. How will these newcomers ever become
true Americans and be absorbed into the American melting pot?
Now imagine that you are one of those aliens. How do you cope with life in
the world’s greatest democracy? You turn to your family and the friends of your
family. Your cousin is a member of the political machine. He promises a patronage
job—if you vote for his boss. You fight exploitation by joining labor unions that
promise to correct bad working conditions. Above all, you practice the culture
you grew up with, and you stay within the confines of the ghetto where that culture
is practiced. You resent prohibition and see nothing wrong with occasionally
consuming alcohol. You listen to family members and local political bosses who
can do things for you and can be trusted to keep their promises.
Throughout the nineteenth century, the United States was a nation of many
cultures. At any given point in time, people in different racial and ethnic groups
were exploited and feared. Some of these groups escaped the ghettos, and their
children were absorbed into the amorphous American middle class. Others were
less successful. Some members of dominant cultural groups attempted to assist
these minority groups, but their efforts were only partially successful. Too often,
their work was actually self-serving—not selfless. They sought to protect their way
of life from the threats posed by these other cultures and lifestyles. This led them to
adopt solutions that sometimes made problems worse. Put yourself back there in
time. Take whichever role you choose. How comfortable would you be? What
would you do? How would you feel about the changes around you?
This situation was an ideal breeding ground for violent social conflict. The battle
was waged in the streets and through the ever-expanding mass media. Yellow journalists
and muckrakers fought wars of words in the media; battle lines were drawn
between defenders of immigrant groups and representatives of existing elites, and
the coverage was not confined to polite newspaper editorials or human-interest feature
stories. It was a fight for the heart and soul of the nation (Altschull, 1990;
Brownell, 1983). Nor was the struggle unique to the United States. In Europe, conflict
across social-class lines was even more intense and deadly. These clashes led to
the development of extremist political groups that demanded an end to democracy
and the establishment of totalitarian states.
In the United States, advocates on all sides were convinced of the Truth and
Justice of their causes. Their way was the American way, the Right way, the only
True way. They were opposed by the forces of Evil and Chaos. These advocates
appealed to the strongest emotions—hate and fear. Mass-mediated propaganda
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