mass-communication-theory

178 Section 3 From Limited-Effects to Critical Cultural Theories: Ferment in the Field
manifest
functions
Intended and
observed consequences
of media
use
latent functions
Unintended and
less easily observedconsequences
of media
use
classic four functions
of the media
Surveillance, correlation,transmission
of the
social heritage,
and
entertainment
were not immediately apparent. Countless empirical generalizations were studied,
but the effort to combine them into broader theories proved more difficult than
had been expected. In this and later chapters we will consider numerous interesting
and useful middle-range theories, but when broader theories were developed based
on these middle-range notions, they had crucial limitations. The first few generations
of empirical researchers had little success at integrating their empirical generalizations
into broader theories. But that may be changing. During the last decade,
media researchers have begun a serious effort to integrate findings into broader
theories (Potter, 2009). We’ll take a careful look at this trend, first in Chapter 9
and then in Chapter 12.
In Social Theory and Social Structure (1949), Merton proposed what he called
a “paradigm for functional analysis” outlining how an inductive strategy centered
on the study of social artifacts (such as the use of mass media) could eventually
lead to the construction of theories that explained the “functions” of these items.
Merton derived his perspective on functional analysis from carefully examining research
in anthropology and sociology. Functionalism, as we’ve seen, assumes that a
society can be usefully viewed as a “system in balance.” That is, the society consists
of complex sets of interrelated activities, each of which supports the others. Every
form of social activity is assumed to play some part in maintaining the system as a
whole. By studying the functions of various parts of such systems, a theory of the
larger system might be developed. This would be a middle-range theory, because it
would integrate research findings from the studies that examined the different parts
of the system.
One feature of functional analysis that appealed to Merton and his followers
was its apparent value-neutrality. Older forms of social theory had characterized
various parts of society as either “good” or “evil” in some ultimate sense. For example,
mass society theory saw media as essentially disruptive and subversive, a
negative force that somehow had to be brought under control. Functionalists rejected
such thinking and instead argued that empirical research should investigate
both the functions and dysfunctions of media. In that way a systematic appraisal
could be made of media’s overall impact by weighing useful outcomes of media
use against negative outcomes. Functionalists argued that social science had no
basis and no need for making value judgments about media. Rather, empirical investigation
was necessary to determine whether specific media perform certain
functions for the society. Merton also distinguished manifest functions—those consequences
that are intended and readily observed—and latent functions—those
unintended and less easily observed.
Functional analysis was widely adopted as a rationale for many mass communication
studies during the late 1950s and 1960s. Researchers tried to determine
whether specific media or forms of media content were functional or dysfunctional.
They investigated manifest and latent functions of media. In his classic 1959 book,
Mass Communication: A Sociological Perspective, Charles Wright identified what
have become known as the classic four functions of the media. He wrote: “Harold
Lasswell, a political scientist who has done pioneering research in mass communications,
once noted three activities of communication specialists: (1) surveillance of
the environment, (2) correlation of the parts of society in responding to the environment,
and (3) transmission of the social heritage from one generation to the
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