2. Philosophy - Stefano Franchi

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210 C HESS, GAMES, AND FLIES fied by taming the complexity of a chess game. A theory of thinking must therefore provide not only a explanation of how the goal, the solution, can be reached, but also a replication of the performance. Since the solving process is what is at stake, the process itself will have to be replicated, not just the underlying principle. The computer assumes then a central role, because it is only by simulating on a computer the “blind” search of a solution abstractly possible in the game-tree that we can expect a true confirmation of a theory 40 The second point to emphasize concerns the basic problem that such a theory must solve: combinatorial explosion, or complexity, whose measure is given by the sheer, direct- ly unmanageable size of the game-tree. Newell, Simon, and Shaw’s answer to the problem proceeds along two lines: first of all, we have better consider only a subset of all possible chess positions, and more precisely only those which have a meaning for a normal chess game. This is where “heuristics” and “satisficing” come into play. No exact, optimal rule for identifying this subset exists, of course, but one can rely on the knowledge gathered by past chess grandmasters and accumulated in a small number of rules of thumb, or general strategic guidelines. In particular, the authors compile a number of overall “goals” that a chess player must achieve, loosely speaking, in order to win, like, for example, “keep the king safe,” “develop the pieces,” “do not block your own pawns,” etc. Only moves that con- tribute toward the satisfaction of the specified goals are considered, thus greatly reducing the size of the search. In terms of the diagram, these rules amount to a pruning of the tree along the horizontal axis. The second pruning strategy proceeds along the other axis: in- stead of considering the whole game—which is, on the average, 80 levels deep—we consider only the first four or five levels below the level at which the move is being played. The effectiveness of these strategies, and especially their adequacy as a model of chess competence in particular and thinking processes in general, can of course be seriously questioned. Indeed, it has been questioned more than once. 41 But my point is different. Heuris- 40. See, for example, Newell and Simon reservations, along these lines, against Turing hand-simulation of his chess-playing programming in Human Problem Solving…, 671 ff. 41. See Hubert Dreyfus’s books and especially Mind over machines (New York: The Free Press, 1986) where an alternative model of human expertise is presented (and later attributed to the co-author of the book, Stuart Dreyfus).
C OMBINATORIAL EXPLOSIONS tics poses the final touch to the interaction between AI and chess that allows the closure of the feedback circle and triggers even more theoretical attention on the game. Heuristics is about chess (king’s safety, etc.), and it is about reducing chess’s intrinsic complexity. Chess, as a consequence, is studied more and more as a space to search on the basis of more and more sophisticated heuristic functions. This is what chess is for AI, and will ever be. But not only: a whole, concrete view of games emerges, games as the closed space that iso- lates it from anything outside and makes potentially meaningful whatever lies inside. On the rebound, AI is precisely what comes out of this article, as I have already suggested above: heuristic search in a search-space game-theoretically defined. “Thinking” must be explained in terms of satisficing a set of rigid constraints by searching heuristically the space that those constraints (e.g. rules) define. And the best way to provide and test a de- tailed theory of thinking is by writing a computer program that will effectively search such a space. 211
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ENDGAMES Game and Play at the End o
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I. Prelude 1. Mr. Palomar 3 2. Mr.
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PRELUDE
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M R . PALOMAR will make clear, hope
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M R . PALOMAR’ S CHECKMATES I wil
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M R . PALOMAR’ S CHECKMATES Conce
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M R . PALOMAR’ S CHECKMATES “sh
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M R . PALOMAR’ S CHECKMATES after
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T HE WORLD OF CANDRAKIRTI we have s
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T HE WORLD OF CANDRAKIRTI in a manu
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T HE WORLD OF CANDRAKIRTI securing
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T HE WORLD OF CANDRAKIRTI and combi
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tion: T HE WORLD OF CANDRAKIRTI 1.
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T HE WORLD OF CANDRAKIRTI interpret
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T HE WORLD OF CANDRAKIRTI biguity,
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T HE IRREPARABLE LIGHT OF DAWN the
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T HE IRREPARABLE LIGHT OF DAWN In M
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CHAPTER I THE END OF PHILOSOPHY in
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2. Philosophy P HILOSOPHY Discourse
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P HILOSOPHY cably intertwined that
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P HILOSOPHY As this passage shows,
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H EGEL’ S PARADOX inner contradic
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H EGEL’ S PARADOX for better or f
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H EGEL’ S PARADOX a series of eve
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H EGEL’ S PARADOX Let us go back
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H EGEL’ S PARADOX then I am clear
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H EGEL’ S PARADOX opened up for u
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P HILOSOPHY’ S ENDS Therefore, ou
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P HILOSOPHY’ S ENDS Western tradi
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P HILOSOPHY’ S ENDS goes, has chi
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P HILOSOPHY’ S ENDS his argument.
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P HILOSOPHY’ S ENDS sented as sep
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P HILOSOPHY’ S ENDS The first opt
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P HILOSOPHY’ S ENDS to philosophy
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P HILOSOPHY’ S ENDS This multipli
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O F LINES, CIRCLES, AND SPHERES. co
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O F LINES, CIRCLES, AND SPHERES. 12
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O F LINES, CIRCLES, AND SPHERES. on
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“EIN SPIELEN DER LIEBE MIT SICH S
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CHAPTER II ABSOLUTE(S) SPIELEN in w
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“ TO DIE GAME” Spiel is actuall
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“ TO DIE GAME” context of a “
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“ TO DIE GAME” tion that is the
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A BSOLUTE( S ) SPIELEN tragic: this
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A BSOLUTE( S ) SPIELEN the player m
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A BSOLUTE( S ) SPIELEN Hegel is the
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A BSOLUTE( S ) SPIELEN tation, woul
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A BSOLUTE( S ) SPIELEN the roots of
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B ORDERING PHILOSOPHY holds itself
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B ORDERING PHILOSOPHY informal expl
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B ORDERING PHILOSOPHY ditions that
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B ORDERING PHILOSOPHY inside the bu
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B ORDERING PHILOSOPHY The existence
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B ORDERING PHILOSOPHY duction that
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S PIELEN, THE ABYSS, AND THE CHILD
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T HE GREAT BEYOND source, from the
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T HE GREAT BEYOND completion. This
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T HE GREAT BEYOND proach practiced
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CHAPTER III PHILOSOPHY, NON-PHILOSO
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N ON-PHILOSOPHY does not build the
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N ON-PHILOSOPHY new fields of inqui
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N ON-PHILOSOPHY would do more justi
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N ON-PHILOSOPHY odology which is no
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O N THE VARIOUS MEANINGS OF “X IS
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B ETWEEN ENGINEERING, SCIENCE, AND
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Page 175 and 176: A RTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AS A NON-
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Page 191 and 192: T HE DROSOPHILA OF AI. involvement
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Page 225 and 226: CHAPTER V STRUCTURES (AND SPACES) i
Page 227 and 228: G AMES AND STRUCTURES same function
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Page 231 and 232: conscious phenomena. F ROM LANGUAGE
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Page 257 and 258: T HE SUPPLEMENT We now have an answ
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F ORM AND CONTENT pressing games, e
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S TRUCTURE AND SUBSTANCE This does
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S TRUCTURE AND SUBSTANCE classical
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S TRUCTURE AND SUBSTANCE contexts]
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S TRUCTURE AND SUBSTANCE Strauss’
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S TRUCTURALISM, PHILOSOPHY, AND AI
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T HE CHALLENGE OF CLOSURE methodolo
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T HE CHALLENGE OF CLOSURE on any co
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T HE CHALLENGE OF CLOSURE ing to L
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T HE CHALLENGE OF CLOSURE other wor
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T HE ANACLASTIC ILLUSION OF A TRANS
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CHAPTER VIII A MOVABLE CONCLUSION w
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A FTER GAME- BASED SPIELEN Play, th
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REFERENCES Adorno, Theodor, Hegel:
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Johns Hopkins UP, 1974). Derrida, J
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Hewson, John, “Saussure's Game of
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Mirowski, Philip, “When Games Gro
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Searle, John, The Rediscovery of th
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2. Philosophy - Stefano Franchi

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