The Roman Army, 31 BC–AD 337: A Sourcebook

3 The Emperor as
commander-in-chief
When Octavian adopted the designation imperator as part of his name,
probably in 38 BC, he was making a claim to be the outstanding military
leader in Rome. In his campaign against Sextus Pompey he needed the
aura of authority and the prestige associated with victory which it
imparted (Syme 1958). Once established in power, Augustus tied the
army closely to his person, and it was his legacy that all emperors bore
the attributes of a Roman general (by the 70s imperator was the usual
designation of emperors). Since all campaigns were conducted under
their auspices, the glory belonged to them, and acclamations as general
were added to their titles, while other names and epithets expressed
the humiliation of Rome’s enemies (e.g. Parthicus—‘Conqueror of the
Parthians’), and aggressive military prowess (e.g. ‘extender of the
empire’). In public images imperial military responsibilities played a
significant role and the emperor was depicted wearing military dress
on statues, reliefs, triumphal arches, and coins, often as a conquering
hero or a dignified but firm military leader, most strikingly illustrated
by the statue of Augustus from Prima Porta (see Zanker 1988:190–1).
Moreover, every emperor was personally associated with his troops—
as paymaster, comrade, benefactor—and sought to demonstrate that
he was a worthy and courageous fellow-soldier, deserving of their
complete loyalty. Not surprisingly therefore emperors increasingly
assimilated to their role as military leaders and by the end of the first
century AD were taking personal command of all major campaigns.
They could, therefore, spend more time with their troops, but this made
the conduct of administration more difficult since the whole apparatus
of government had to follow them. In one sense the imperial role as
commander-in-chief was in keeping with Roman ideology, which held
military prowess in high esteem and associated military command with
the leading men in the state; but emperors also saw their successful