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CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION IN THE BALTIC SEA REGION The harsh climatic conditions in Finland have created a special attitude to those hazards the climate provides for the infrastructure of water supply. Pipelines are built beneath the level of winter frost, which in south Finland is about 70 cm, and water wells are well-protected against the low temperature. The old, crystalline bedrock in Finland is part of the Precambrian Fennoscandian craton and consists mainly of Archean and Paleoproterozoic rocks (Lehtinen et al. 2005). The majority of the Quaternary overburden observed today was deposited about 10 000 years ago, during and after the Weichselian glaciation. The contact between bedrock and overburden is very sharp. Groundwater recharges in Finland in both Quaternary deposits and bedrock fractures. In the costal area of south Finland the groundwater level reaches its maximum in winter or in early spring (Soveri et al. 2000). During the spring and early summer, the groundwater level decreases to the minimum. The remarkable and useable groundwater resources are from shallow groundwater aquifers, mainly from Quaternary permeable sand and gravel formations. About 7% of the land area in Finland is covered by glaciofluvial deposits (Salonen et al. 2002) (Figure 1). The significant aquifers in south Finland are located in the three Salpausselkä icemarginal formations and other sand and gravel formations. The First and the Second Salpausselkäs run parallel in hundreds of kilometers through the large extensive area from the east to the Hanko area in the south of Finland. The Third Salpausselkä, on the hand, has a smaller size and found deposited only in the western part. The water table of shallow groundwater is often quite near the surface and therefore easy to exploit. The depths of the water tables vary from less than a metre to more than thirty metres, with an average depth of about 2-5 metres. Groundwater resources and water supply as part of critical infrastructure Freshwater is one of the most significant natural resources for life on Earth. Only the well-advised use and protection of freshwater resources might preserve the current level of current life and standard of living in Europe. Water resources and a workable water supply belong to the critical infrastructure in society and need special protection. The most important freshwater resources are located in groundwater aquifers. In these formations, the water is well protected, better than surface water, but even this water is at risk. The potential risks might be natural or man made. The water supply system by itself is sensitive and vulnerable for climatic, economic, technological or political risks and needs special protection. Freshwater provides drinking water and household water to communities and households and supports irrigation for farm production. Many industry processes and productions need plenty of water of good quality. Approximately 0.7 million cubic metres of groundwater per day are abstracted from the aquifers in Finland (SYKE 2007). Groundwater (including the artificial recharge groundwater) from glaciofluvial aquifers of sand and gravel formations contribute about 60 % of public water supply, and the number is expected to increase up to 75 % in 2010 (Figure 2). The public water system serves about 4.7 million inhabitants in Finland, about 0.5 million inhabitants in rural areas depend on local groundwater resources and use private wells. The number of water works with more than 50 users, was 1900 in Finland in 2001. The calculation of water consumption per 192 NORDREGIO REPORT 2007:5
CHAPTER VI: WATER inhabitant was then 240 L/d, including the industry. About 60 % of the groundwater consumption is approximated as household use (SYKE 2007). The average price of raw water and use payment was 2.30 EUR/m 3 in 2001. The approximated price for water for one person per month was approximately 13 EUR. This figure excluded the payments of basic charge and payments of instruments, which vary in different municipalities. The water system pipeline network in Finland comprises of 83,614 km, of which plastic pipes amount to 72,206 km, iron pipes 8,382 km and pipes of other materials 3,026 km (SYKE 2007). milj.m 3 /a 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2010 (Estimated) Ground water Surface water Total (+artificial recharge) Figure VI—2 Amount of water distributed by public water works in Finland during years 1970 – 2001 (milj.m 3 /a). (Modified from SYKE 2007) Groundwater quality in its natural state is usually of high quality in Finland. Finnish groundwater is generally of the Ca-HCO 3 type, which is typical for glaciated areas, with low concentrations of electrolytes, and low pH, alkalinity, calcium and magnesium. Occasionally, especially in spring time the KMnO 4 numbers are high and aluminium and iron values are increased (Lahermo et al. 1999, Backman 2004). Groundwater quality depends on geological, anthropogenic, climatic, and marine factors. In some areas the groundwater can contain high concentrations of harmful elements such as nickel, manganese, arsenic, fluorine or radon of geological origin. Human activities in some agricultural areas lead to an increase in nitrate and potassium concentrations and de-icing of roads causes contamination in some aquifers. However, groundwater reserves in Finland do not normally suffer from contamination on a wider scale, because individual bodies of groundwater tend to be small. The risk of contamination is highest in areas where soils consist of high permeable layers of sands and gravel, which can be easily infiltrated by pollutants. Groundwater resources along the coastal area are at risk, not only due to the change of hydrologic patterns. They also are vulnerable to sea level rise, especially in coastal areas along the southern coast, where future sea level rise is expected to NORDREGIO REPORT 2007:5 193
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Towards a Baltic Sea Region Strateg
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Nordregio Report 2007:5 ISSN 1403-2
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5.4 Impacts caused by terrorism, na
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CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION
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PREFACE PREFACE With the Commission
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PREFACE The study includes tens of
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CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I:
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CHAPTER II: ELECTRICITY 2 ELECTRIC
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CHAPTER II: ELECTRICITY electricity
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CHAPTER II: ELECTRICITY Recent clim
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CHAPTER II: ELECTRICITY Figure II
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CHAPTER II: ELECTRICITY possibiliti
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CHAPTER II: ELECTRICITY continental
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CHAPTER II: ELECTRICITY centres etc
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CHAPTER III: INFORMATION AND COMMUN
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