Education for a Digital World Advice, Guidelines and Effective Practice from Around Globe, 2008a

10 – General Principles of Instructional Design
outcomes for flaws. If a learning outcome is not specific
and measurable, do not proceed with further design and
development. Even when you define the learning outcomes,
there is no guarantee that you will successfully
teach them. In order to ensure that learning takes place,
you still need to follow the subsequent instructional
design steps.
Tip
Well-written learning outcomes help keep the subsequent
instructional development process on track.
STEPS TO WRITING LEARNING OUTCOMES
There are five steps to writing learning outcomes. For
each step, think about why each example is good or poor.
(1) Once you have decided on a content area, use action
verbs to identify specific behaviours. The verb
should be an observable behaviour that produces
measurable results. The verb should also be at the
highest skill level that the learner would be required
to perform. We’ll discuss the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy,
which will give you details about the different
skill levels, in the next section. Note that learners
often need a knowledge base of lower-level skills in
order to succeed at higher-level skills. Based on your
previous entry skills decisions, you might have to
teach the lower-level skills.
Good: calculate, compute
Poor: understand, know.
(2) Specify the content area after the verb.
Good: Calculate averages and compute variances.
Poor: Calculate statistical information and compute
values needed in economics.
(3) Specify applicable conditions. Identify any tools to
be used, information to be supplied, or other constraints
…
Good: Given a calculator, calculate the average of
a list of numbers.
Given a spreadsheet package, compute
variances from a list of numbers.
Poor: Given an available tool, calculate the average
of a list of numbers.
(4) Specify applicable criteria. Identify any desired levels
of speed, accuracy, quality, quantity …
Good: Given a calculator, calculate averages from
a list of numbers correctly 100 percent of
the time.
Poor:
Given a spreadsheet package, compute
variances from a list of numbers rounded
to the second decimal point.
Given a calculator, calculate averages from
a list of numbers correctly most of the time.
(5) Review each learning outcome to be sure it is complete,
clear, and concise. Get content experts and
learners to review them, and get approval before
continuing.
Perhaps the worst example of a learning outcome
ever written is:
The learner will understand and appreciate the
learning outcomes of the course.
REVISED BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
Bloom et al. (1956) classified learning outcomes into six
taxonomies:
(1) Knowledge
(2) Comprehension
(3) Application
(4) Analysis
(5) Synthesis
(6) Evaluation
This has been an invaluable resource that has helped
numerous educators design instructional materials to
the appropriate skill and thinking levels needed. Relatively
recently, Anderson & Krathwohl (2001) revised
Bloom’s taxonomy into these hierarchical categories:
(1) Remember
(2) Understand
(3) Apply
(4) Analyze
(5) Evaluate
(6) Create
Your subsequent instructional strategies, questions,
other interactions, and tests should relate to the appropriate
skill and thinking levels, which directly correspond
to the stated learning outcomes. Remember that
each of these six categories can contain verbal information,
intellectual skills, and attitudes.
138 Education for a Digital World