Education for a Digital World Advice, Guidelines and Effective Practice from Around Globe, 2008a

10 – General Principles of Instructional Design
to achieve the goal, to determine the subordinate skills.
After identifying the information, organize the information
into logical groupings of up to five pieces of information
for weaker or younger learners or seven pieces of
information for brighter or older learners. Verbal information
is important in that it can form the needed
knowledge base for higher-level skills.
For intellectual skills, conduct a hierarchical analysis
to determine the subordinate skills:
• For each goal analysis step, ask “What must the student
know before this skill can be learned?” This creates
the first hierarchical level.
• For each first level component, ask the same question.
This creates a second hierarchical level.
• Continue this as far as needed.
Subordinate psychomotor skills can be derived
through a procedural analysis:
• Specify each activity that must be done for each goal
analysis step.
• Ask, “What must the student do or know before this
step can be done?”
• Continue this as far as needed.
To determine the subordinate attitude skills, conduct
at least one of the following instructional analysis techniques:
• For each goal analysis step, ask “What must the student
do when showing this attitude?” The answer is
usually a cognitive, intellectual, or psychomotor skill.
With this information, you can do the appropriate
analysis.
• Ask, “Why should learners show this attitude?” The
answer is usually verbal information. You should
then do a cluster analysis.
For learning to be effective, and to avoid frustration,
the instruction and the learners’ capabilities must match.
Design the instruction for the target population, defined
as the widest practical range of learners. Determine the
learners’ abilities, language level, motivation, interests,
and human factors. The end result should determine the
entry or basic skills that they must have before the instruction
begins.
Learning outcomes, or objectives, are specific, measurable
skills that communicate to learners, instructors,
and other interested people, what the learners should be
able to do after completing the learning. Success occurs
when learners achieve the planned outcomes. Learning
outcomes form the basis of the subsequent instructional
development process.
To write learning outcomes:
(1) Identify specific behaviours through action verbs.
The verb needs to be stated at the highest skill and
thinking level that the student will need to do. Use
the revised Bloom’s taxonomy as a foundation for
selecting verbs.
(2) Specify the content area after the verb.
(3) Specify applicable conditions. Identify any tools to
be used, information to be supplied, constraints, etc.
(4) Specify applicable criteria. Identify any desired levels
of speed, accuracy, quality, quantity, etc.
(5) Review each learning outcome to be sure it is complete,
clear, and concise.
Glossary
Attitude. Tendency to make particular decisions or
choices under specific circumstances.
Bloom’s taxonomy. A classification system containing
six hierarchical taxonomies for learning outcomes.
Cluster analysis. Analysis used to organize verbal
information into logical groupings that are small enough
to be learned successfully.
Feedback. Any response related to input.
Goal analysis. The process for providing a visual
statement of what the learner will be able to do.
Halo effect. A result in which people behave differently
because they are being observed.
Hierarchical analysis. Used to determine the subordinate
skills required to learn an intellectual skill.
Instructional design. The process of activities aimed
at creating a solution for an instructional problem.
Instructional goals. General skills that will be further
defined into specific learning outcomes.
Intellectual skills. Skills that require learners to think
rather than simply memorize information.
Learner analysis. Determines information about the
student’s abilities, language capabilities, motivation,
interests, human factors, and learning styles.
Learning outcomes or objectives. Specific, measurable
skills.
Needs assessment. A method of gathering information
for determining the actual problem.
Procedural analysis. Used to derive subordinate psychomotor
skills.
Psychomotor skills. Skills that require learners to
carry out muscular actions.
140 Education for a Digital World