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Inclusion and educational processes
Haug (1998) formulates what is perhaps the most influential notion of inclusive
education in the Scandinavian context. It is an understanding of inclusion which
is firmly grounded in discussion about social justice. He makes a case for participatory
democracy in which social justice is interpreted as the right to participate.
Haug underscores the importance of creating a community where the social
and democratic aspects of education are in the foreground. In such a community,
children will participate in the same (similar) situations, learn and develop selfconfidence
and a social network. Importantly, he argues that no child should be
excluded or pointed out. We interpret this as meaning that no segregated organizational
solutions or no downgrading labels should be used. Such labels could be
of educational (slow learner, lagging behind) or psycho medical origin. However,
it is not clear in what sense the outcome of the educational processes suggested
by Haug will result in similarity or difference in educational outcomes. It should
also be pointed out that he to a large extent addresses issues concerning collective
aspects of educational activities which stand in a rather sharp contrast to the
present individual frame of reference in understanding education, e.g. in terms of
individual educational plans, number of individuals reaching the goals of schooling
or individual work forms (Skolverket, 2009).
Inclusion and educational outcome
One reasonable way to understand inclusion is from the point of view of educational
outcome, i.e. that every pupil will be equally prepared to enter into society.
In this way, pupils should become similar during schooling. Dewey (1996, p. 139),
while not speaking explicitly of inclusion, argues that schooling should provide
children with the same tools. Thus, making children similar in compensating for
social injustices is pointed out as a virtue of schooling. The argument put forward
by Dewey in this context is based on two fundamental assumptions: 1) that it is
possible to make children equally prepared when entering society, and 2) that it is
desirable to do so.
Possibility of similarity implies that all children can reach the goals of the system.
It implicitly builds on an environmental perspective in explaining the development
of knowledge and skills. This line of thinking is at times implicit in sociologies of
education where differences between children when leaving school are viewed as
outcomes of the system rather than as having to do with possibilities inherent in
children. The argument about similar outcomes of educational attainment is most
often voiced with regard to social class, ethnicity and gender but should be kept in
mind also in the discussion of special needs.
Our point of departure
We will use the notion of inclusion proposed by Haug as the lens through which we
analyze the inclusiveness of the Swedish school system. For analytical purposes we
will use the following three themes to trace the inclusiveness of the Swedish school
system: values and goals; organization and placement of pupils; and the importance
of categories for acquiring support. In our analysis we will pay special attention to
the emergence of independent schools within the Swedish school system.
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