The genus Cinnamomum

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4 Cultivation and Management of Cinnamon J. Ranatunga, U.M. Senanayake and R.O.B. Wijesekera Introduction In Sri Lanka, cinnamon has originated in the central hills where several species of related taxa occur, especially in places such as Kandy, Matale, Belihull Oya, Haputale and the Sinharaja forest range. Currently, cinnamon cultivation is concentrated along the coastal belt stretching from Negom to Matara. Of late, cultivation has spread to the inland areas of Kalutara, Ambalangoda, Matara and Ratnapura (Fig. 4.1). The area under cinnamon cultivation in Sri Lanka is around 15,500 ha (Anon, 1996a). The bulk of the cinnamon plantation is about 70–80 years old, most of which belongs to small holders. Only about 10% of the plantations exceed 8–10 ha. Sri Lanka commands about 60% of the world export market and exports about 7,000 t of quills and chips per year, apart from cinnamon leaf oil and bark oil. In the systematic cultivation methods prevalent in plantations in Sri Lanka, cinnamon is maintained as a bush with four to five slender shoots growing up two to three metres. (Fig. 4.2). The economic life span of a cinnamon plant is around 30–40 years (Senanayake, 1977; Wijesekera et al., 1975). In two to three years after planting, depending on the climatic factors, the plants reach a height of 1.5–2 m, with three to four shoots, and are then ready for harvesting. Generally, cinnamon can be harvested two to three times per year depending on the rainfall and soil fertility. After harvesting, the leaves are separated and the stems are peeled to remove the bark. The processing of different products then begins. Sri Lanka dominates in the supply of cinnamon. Other important sources are the Seychelles, Madagascar and India. Cassia is found in China, Indonesia, India, Taiwan and other countries in South-East Asia, and the Pacific Ocean Islands. However, most cassia oil in international trade is of Chinese origin. Soil, climate and varieties Cinnamon is a hardy plant, which can grow well in almost all types of soils under a wide variety of tropical conditions. In Sri Lanka, it is cultivated under varying conditions ranging from semi-dry to wet zone conditions and soils varying from the silver sands of Kadirana, Ekala and Ja-ela to the loamy, lateritie, and gravelly soils of the Kalutara, Galle and Matara districts (Fig. 4.1). The ideal temperature for growing cinnamon is between 20°C and 30°C. Rainfall should be in the range of 1250–2500 mm. Generally, cinnamon does not thrive well in the drier parts of the low-country. It thrives well as a forest tree at 300–350 m above sea level. 0-415-31755-X/04/$0.00 $1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC
122 J. Ranatunga, U.M. Senanayake and R.O.B. Wijesekera The quality of bark is greatly influenced by soil and ecological factors. The best quality cinnamon is produced on white silicatious sandy soils like the ‘silver sands’ of the Negombo district. Yield is higher in other soils but the quality is coarser than in sandy soils. Varieties Colombo Kalutaca Dry Zone Kegalle Matale kandy Galle Matara Badulla Ratnapura Hambantota Pepper Cinnamon pepper/Clove pepper/Clove Nutmeg Cardamom Citronella Figure 4.1 Distribution of cinnamon and other spices in Sri Lanka. There are several species of Cinnamomum found in South and South-East Asia. In addition to the true cinnamon (C. verum), there are other species which are endemic to Sri Lanka (Wijesekera et al., 1975). It has been reported that eight different types (cultivars) of cinnamon are grown in Sri Lanka. These are distinguished by pungency of bark and petiole, texture of bark and the structure of leaves (Anon, 1996b). However, no botanical description of such varieties are available. They are known by the following local (Sinhalese) names:
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Cinnamon and Cassia The genus Cinna
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Cinnamon and Cassia The genus Cinna
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This volume is dedicated to Prof. (
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viii Contents 10 Pests and diseases
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x Contributors Subhan C. Nath Regio
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xii Preface to the series compounds
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xiv Preface When we approached the
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1 Introduction P.N. Ravindran and K
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French Casse, Canefice, Canelle de
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Introduction 5 were accomplished sa
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Introduction 7 It seems quite proba
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Introduction 9 rose to 450,000 kg.
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Introduction 11 Sri Lanka has been
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Introduction 13 ISO (1977) Oil of c
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Botany and Crop Improvement of Cinn
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(a) (c) Botany and Crop Improvement
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Indian cassia leaves (known as ‘T
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1 2 Botany and Crop Improvement of
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Table 2.4 Stomatal characteristics
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1 3 4 Collenchyma Stone cell Phloem
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Table 2.6 Microscopic characteristi
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(k) Medullary 2 cells wide, radiall
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1 7 1a 7 Wood anatomy 4 6 2 2a Bota
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(a) (b) Morning Botany and Crop I
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1 2 3 4 6 8 9 Botany and Crop Impro
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viability is completely lost (Kanna
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Other tissue culture studies Botany
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Table 2.11 Bark and leaf oil consti
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Table 2.13 Growth and yield paramet
Page 88 and 89: Botany and Crop Improvement of Cinn
Page 90 and 91: Little crop improvement work has go
Page 98 and 99: Chemistry of Cinnamon and Cassia 81
Page 104 and 105: Table 3.4 Volatile constituents ide
Page 110 and 111: HO Chemistry of Cinnamon and Cassia
Page 116 and 117: -Humulene 1.30 0.57 0.12 1.40 -Cube
Page 118 and 119: 1 3 2 4 4 5 7 6 8 10 9 12 11 13 14
Page 120 and 121: 1147 Isoborneol 0.36 0.55 1158 Born
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Page 126 and 127: R OH 4 HO O O O OH Chemistry of Cin
Page 132 and 133: p-Cymene 13 21.35 0.82 -Copaene 0.4
Page 134 and 135: (E)-cinnamyl acetate 0.1 0.2-2.2 -3
Page 136 and 137: Annex 3.3 The chemical structure of
Page 140 and 141: Figure 4.2 Field plantation of cinn
Page 142 and 143: the age of three to four months exc
Page 144 and 145: Cultivation and Management of Cinna
Page 146 and 147: Cultivation and Management of Cinna
Page 148 and 149: HARVESTED CINNAMON Cutting Extracti
Page 150 and 151: (a) (b) Figure 5.3 (a) Cinnamon pee
Page 152 and 153: Chips Harvesting, Processing, and Q
Page 154 and 155: cassia oils, is obtained from disti
Page 156 and 157: KETTLE FURNACE Harvesting, Processi
Page 158 and 159: the oleoresin is stored in suitable
Page 160 and 161: Grades The Cinnamon bark shall have
Page 162 and 163: Quality of Reagents Unless specifie
Page 164 and 165: Cinnamon powder Harvesting, Process
Page 166 and 167: Table 5A.5 Chemical requirements Ha
Page 168 and 169: Harvesting, Processing, and Quality
Page 170 and 171: Special protection information Resp
Page 172 and 173: Ash Refer to Annex 5.3. Acid insolu
Page 174 and 175: Chinese Cassia 157 Figure 6.1 Cinna
Page 176 and 177: Figure 6.2 A 15-year old plantation
Page 178 and 179: Chinese Cassia 161 careful harrowin
Page 180 and 181: make it easier to climb and to avoi
Page 182 and 183: Adulterations and substitutes In ea
Page 184 and 185: Chinese Cassia 167 various regions
Page 186 and 187: Table 6.4 Insect pests of cassia ci
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Chinese Cassia 171 Table 6.5 Compos
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Trace Methyl eugenol Trace Benzoic
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Table 6.9 Comparative percentages,
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Chinese Cassia 177 (3-5°C) or due
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Chinese Cassia 179 curing diseases
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Chinese Cassia 181 different parts
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Chinese Cassia 183 Kashiwada, Y., N
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7 Indonesian Cassia (Indonesian Cin
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propagation is possible through cut
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Indonesian Cassia (Indonesian Cinna
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Figure 7.3 Separation of bark by be
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the branch. The mycelium layer pene
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Table 7.4 The yield and characteris
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Conclusion In spite of the fact tha
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8 Indian Cassia Akhil Baruah and Su
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Indian Cassia 201 pollen dehiscence
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Indian Cassia 203 Ecology and distr
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Table 8.1 Physico-chemical characte
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Indian Cassia 207 Table 8.4 Composi
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References Indian Cassia 209 Anonym
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9 Camphor Tree K. Nirmal Babu, P.N.
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Sub-specific division of C. camphor
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Camphor Tree 215 succession species
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The condenser is the most bulky and
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Table 9.1 Relation between age of t
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Table 9.3 Yield of camphor and oil
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Camphor Tree 223 Yu-Sho oil: Specif
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Ketones and oxides: Camphor, piperi
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Camphor Tree 227 20 Citronellyl ace
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Table 9.12 Chemical composition (%)
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Camphor Tree 231 Table 9.14 Yield a
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Camphor Tree 233 Table 9.18 Physico
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Camphor Tree 235 To prevent bed-sor
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Camphor Tree 237 Chopra, R.N., Chop
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10 Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon a
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Family: Dermestidae Evorinea hirtel
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Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon and
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Leaf webber (Orthaga vitalis) Pests
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C. malabatrum Meliola beilschmiedia
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11 Pharmacology and Toxicology of C
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Anti-inflammatory action Pharmacolo
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Pharmacology and Toxicology of Cinn
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Table 11.1 Antibacterial effects of
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Table 11.2 Antifungal activity of c
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12 Economics and Marketing of Cinna
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Economics and Marketing of Cinnamon
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Table 12.7 US imports of whole cass
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Japan Economics and Marketing of Ci
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Table 12.14 US exports of cassia an
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Table 12.16 World exports of cinnam
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Table 12.20 US imports of cassia oi
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S t 0.37Y t 0.63S t1 Economics an
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13 End Uses of Cinnamon and Cassia
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Table 13.3 Typical western pickling
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End Uses of Cinnamon and Cassia 315
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Table 13.9 Relative flavour intensi
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Cinnamon - in perfumes and beauty c
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Chinese Cassia Chinese cassia - as
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14 Cinnamon and Cassia - The Future
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Cinnamon and Cassia - The Future Vi
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Table 15.1 Chemical composition of
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Table 15.3 Constituents of leaf oil
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cloves. Leaves measure 3-12 1.5-4
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C. deschampsii Gamble C. deschampsi
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Table 15.7 Composition of essential
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Other Useful Species of Cinnamomum
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Table 15.9 Compounds identified in
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C. sulphuratum Nees Other Useful Sp
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Table 15.13 Percentage composition
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location 90 physico-chemical proper
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mass spectrometric studies 97 extra
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metabolic studies 267 sedative effe
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The genus Cinnamomum

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