Botany and Crop Improvement of Cinnamon and Cassia 75 Hooker, J.D. (1886) Flora of the British India, Vol. V. Reeve & Co., London (Reprint), pp. 78–95. Hong, L. and Yetong, C. (1997) Regeneration of bark of <strong>Cinnamomum</strong> cassia Presl. after girdling. J. Plant Resources and Environment, 6(3), 1–7. Huang, L.C., Huang, B.L. and Murashige, T. (1998) A micropropagation protocol for <strong>Cinnamomum</strong> camphora. In vitro Cellular and Developmental Bio. – Plant, 34, 141–146. IISR (1996) Indian Institute of Spices Research, Annual Report for 1995–96, IISR, Calicut, pp. 17–20. Inomoto, Y. and Kitani, Y. (1989) In vitro propagation of <strong>Cinnamomum</strong> cassia. Plant Tissue Cul. Lett., 6, 25–27. Jackson, B.P. and Snowdon, D.W. (1990) Atlas of Microscopy of Medicinal Plants, Culinary Herbs and Spices. Belhaven Press, UK. Joseph, J. (1981) Floral biology and variation in cinnamon. In S. Vishveshwara (ed.) Proc. PLACROSYM IV, ISPC, CPCRI, Kasaragod, India, pp. 431–434. Joy, P.P., Thomas, J., Mathew, S. and Ibrahim, K.K. (1998) Growth, leaf oil yield and quality investigations in Cinnamon (<strong>Cinnamomum</strong> verum). J. Med. Aromatic Plants, 28, 401–406. Kannan, K. and Balakrishnan, S. (1967) A note on the viability of cinnamon seeds. Madras Agric. J., 54, 78–79. Kasapligal, B. (1951) Morphological and ontogenetic studies on Umbellularia californica Nutt and Laurus nobilis, L. Univ. California pub. Bot., 25, 115–240. Khein, P.V., Chien, H.T., Duang, N.X., Leclercq, A.X. and Leclercq, P.A. (1998) Chemical segregation of progeny of camphor trees with high camphor c.q. linalool content. J. Essent. Oil Res., 10, 607–612. Kim, K.S. and Kim, M.H. (1984) Systematic studies on some Korean (R.) woody plants-venation pattern of Lauraceae. Korean J. Bot., 27, 15–24. Kostermans, A.J.G.H. (1957) Lauraceae. Reinwardtia, 4, 193–256. Kostermans, A.J.G.H. (1961) <strong>The</strong> New World Species of <strong>Cinnamomum</strong> Trend (Lauraceae). Reinwardia, 6, 17–24. Kostermans, A.J.G.H. (1964) Bibliographia Lauracearum, Bogor Bot. Gardens, Djakarta. Kostermans, A.J.G.H. (1980) A note on two species of <strong>Cinnamomum</strong> (Lauraceae) described in Hortus Indicus Malabaricus. In Manilal, K.S. (ed.) Botany and History of Hortus Malabaricus, Oxford IBH, New Delhi. pp. 163–167. Kostermans, A.J.G.H. (1983) <strong>The</strong> South Indian species of <strong>Cinnamomum</strong> Schaeffer (Lauraceae). Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 25, 90–133. Kostermans, A.J.G.H. (1986) A monograph of the <strong>genus</strong> <strong>Cinnamomum</strong> Schaeffer (Lauraceae) Part I. Ginkgoana, 6, 1–71. Kostermans, A.J.G.H. (1995) Lauraceae. In M.D. Dasanayake, F.R. Fosberg and W.D. Clayton (eds) A Revised Handbook of the Flora of Ceylon, Vol. 9. Amerind Pub. Co; New Delhi, pp. 112–115. Krishnamoorthy, B., Gopalam, A. and Abraham, J (1988) Quality parameters of cinnamon (<strong>Cinnamomum</strong> verum) in relation to flush colour. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spices J. 12, 38. Krishnamoorthy, B., Rema, J. and Sasikumar, B. (1991) Progeny analysis in cinnamon. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spices J., 14, 124–125. Krishnamoorthy, B., Sasikumar, B., Rema, J., Gopalam, A. and Abraham, J. (1992) Variability and association studies in cinnamon (<strong>Cinnamomum</strong> verum) J. Spices and Aromatic Crops, 1, 148–150. Krishnamoorthy, B. and Rema, J. (1994) Air layering in cassia cinnamon. (<strong>Cinnamomum</strong> aromaticum Nees) J. Spices and Aromatic Crops, 3, 48–49. Krishnamoorthy, B., Rema, J., Zachariah, T.J., Abraham, J. and Gopalam, A. (1996) Navashree and Nithyashree – two new high yielding and high quality Cinnamon – (<strong>Cinnamomum</strong> verum Bercht & Presl.) selections. J. Spices and Aromatic Crops, 5, 28–33. Krishnamoorthy, B., Sasikumar, B., Rema, J., George, G.K. and Peter, K.V. (1997) Genetic resources of tree spices and their conservation in India. Plant Gen. Res. News Lett., III, 53–58.
76 P.N. Ravindran et al. Krishnamoorthy, B., Zachariah, T.J., Rema, J. and Mathews, P.A. (1999) Evaluation of selected Chinese cassia, <strong>Cinnamomum</strong> cassia accessions for chemical quality. J. Spices and Aromatic Crops, 8, 215–217. Krishnamoorthy, B., Zachariah, T.J., Rema, J. and Mathews, P.A. (2001) High quality cassia selections from IISR, Calicut. Spice India, 14(6), 2–4. Kubitzki, K. and Kurz, H. (1984) Synchronised dichogamy and dioecy in neotropical Lauraceae. Plant Syst. Evol., 147, 253–266. Lang-Yang, S., Wei, H. and Guang-yu, W. (1989) Study on chemical constituents of the essential oil and classification of types from <strong>Cinnamomum</strong> camphora. Acta Bot. Sinica, 31, 209–214. Lin, T.P. (1996) Seed storage behaviour deviating from the orthodox and recalcitrant type. In Proc. International Seed Testing Association, ISTA Secretariat, Switzerland. Lin, T.P., Cheng, Y.P. and Huang, S.G. (1997) Allozyme variation in four geographic areas of <strong>Cinnamomum</strong> kanehirae. <strong>The</strong> J. Heredity (USA), 88, 433–438. Linsmaier, E.M. and Skoog, F. (1965) Organic growth factor requirements of tobacco tissue cultures. Physiol. Plant., 18, 100–127. Manilal, K.S. and Shylaja, M. (1986) A new species of <strong>Cinnamomum</strong> Schaeffer (Lauraceae) from Malabar. Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 28, 111–113. Maron, R. and Fahn, A. (1979) Ultrastructure and development of oil cells in Laurus nobilis leaves. Bot. J. Linn-Soc., 78, 31–40. Mathai, M.P., Zachariah, J.C., Samsudeen, K., Rema, J., Nirmal Babu, K. and Ravindran, P.N. (1997) Micropropagation of <strong>Cinnamomum</strong> verum (Bercht & Presl.) In S. Edison, K.V. Ramana, B. Sasikumar, K. Nirmal Babu and S.J. Eapen (eds) Biotechnology of Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, ISS, IISR, Calicut, pp. 35–38. Mehra, P.N. and Bawa, K.S. (1968) B-Chromosomes in some Himalayan hardwoods. Chromosoma, 25, 90–95. Mehra, P.N. and Bawa, K.S. (1969) Chromosomal evolution in tropical hardwoods. Evolution, 23, 466–481. Meissner (1864) In DC Prodr. 15(1), 1–260. Cited from Kostermans (1957). Menon, R., Shylaja, M.R. and Mercy, K.A. (1993) Leaf area estimation in cinnamon (<strong>Cinnamomum</strong> zeylanicum L.). South Indian Hort., 41, 239–241. Merrill (1920) Cited from Allen (1939). Metcalfe, C.R. and Chalk, L. (1950) Anatomy of Dicotyledons. Clarenden Press, Oxford. Mikage, M., Komatsu, K. and Namba, T. (1987) Fundamental studies on the evaluation of crude drugs. IX. Soft X-ray analysis of crude drugs. (1) Evaluation of the quality. Yakugaku Zasshi, 107, 192–198. Mohanakumar, G.N., Mokashi, A.N., Narayana Swamy, P., Prabhakar, N., Devar, K.V., Reddy, D.N.R. and Nalawadi, U.G. (1985) Studies on the floral biology of Cinnamon. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut & Spices J., 8(4), 100–102. Nageswari, K., Pugalendhi, L. and Balakrishnamurthy, G. (1999) Effect of biofertilizers on rooting of Cinnamon (<strong>Cinnamomum</strong> verum Presl.). Spice India, Nov. 1999, 9–10. Nageswari, K., Pugalendhi, L. and Azhakiamanavalan, R.S. (2000) Propagation studies in cinnamon (<strong>Cinnamomum</strong> zeylanicum). Spice India, Feb. 2000, 11–12. Namba, T., Kikuchi, T., Mikage, M., Kadota, S., Komatsu, K., Shimizu, M. and Tamimori, T. (1987) Studies on the natural resources from Sri Lanka. (1) On anatomical and chemical differences among each grade of ‘cinnamomi veri cortex’. Shoyakugaku zasshi, 41, 35–42. Nees, Th. (1836) Systema Laurinarum (cited from Kostermans, 1957). Nirmal Babu, K., Ravindran, P.N. and Peter, K.V. (2000) Biotechnology of Spices. In K.L. Chadha, P.N. Ravindran and Leela Sahijram (ed.) Biotechnology in Horticultural and Plantation Crops, Malhotra Pub., New Delhi, pp. 487–527. Nirmal Babu, K., Ravindran, P.N. and Peter, K.V. (1997) Protocols for micropropagation of Spices and Aromatic Crops. Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut, Kerala, p. 35.
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Cinnamon and Cassia The genus Cinna
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Cinnamon and Cassia The genus Cinna
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This volume is dedicated to Prof. (
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viii Contents 10 Pests and diseases
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x Contributors Subhan C. Nath Regio
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xii Preface to the series compounds
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xiv Preface When we approached the
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1 Introduction P.N. Ravindran and K
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French Casse, Canefice, Canelle de
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Introduction 5 were accomplished sa
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Introduction 7 It seems quite proba
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Introduction 9 rose to 450,000 kg.
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Introduction 11 Sri Lanka has been
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Introduction 13 ISO (1977) Oil of c
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Botany and Crop Improvement of Cinn
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(a) (c) Botany and Crop Improvement
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Botany and Crop Improvement of Cinn
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Indian cassia leaves (known as ‘T
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Botany and Crop Improvement of Cinn
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the age of three to four months exc
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Cultivation and Management of Cinna
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Cultivation and Management of Cinna
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HARVESTED CINNAMON Cutting Extracti
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(a) (b) Figure 5.3 (a) Cinnamon pee
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Chips Harvesting, Processing, and Q
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cassia oils, is obtained from disti
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KETTLE FURNACE Harvesting, Processi
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the oleoresin is stored in suitable
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Grades The Cinnamon bark shall have
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Quality of Reagents Unless specifie
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Cinnamon powder Harvesting, Process
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Table 5A.5 Chemical requirements Ha
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Harvesting, Processing, and Quality
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Special protection information Resp
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Ash Refer to Annex 5.3. Acid insolu
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Chinese Cassia 157 Figure 6.1 Cinna
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Figure 6.2 A 15-year old plantation
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Chinese Cassia 161 careful harrowin
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make it easier to climb and to avoi
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Adulterations and substitutes In ea
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Chinese Cassia 167 various regions
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Table 6.4 Insect pests of cassia ci
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Chinese Cassia 171 Table 6.5 Compos
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Trace Methyl eugenol Trace Benzoic
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Table 6.9 Comparative percentages,
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Chinese Cassia 177 (3-5°C) or due
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Chinese Cassia 179 curing diseases
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Chinese Cassia 181 different parts
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Chinese Cassia 183 Kashiwada, Y., N
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7 Indonesian Cassia (Indonesian Cin
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propagation is possible through cut
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Indonesian Cassia (Indonesian Cinna
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Figure 7.3 Separation of bark by be
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the branch. The mycelium layer pene
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Table 7.4 The yield and characteris
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Conclusion In spite of the fact tha
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8 Indian Cassia Akhil Baruah and Su
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Indian Cassia 201 pollen dehiscence
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Indian Cassia 203 Ecology and distr
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Table 8.1 Physico-chemical characte
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Indian Cassia 207 Table 8.4 Composi
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References Indian Cassia 209 Anonym
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9 Camphor Tree K. Nirmal Babu, P.N.
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Sub-specific division of C. camphor
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Camphor Tree 215 succession species
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The condenser is the most bulky and
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Table 9.1 Relation between age of t
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Table 9.3 Yield of camphor and oil
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Camphor Tree 223 Yu-Sho oil: Specif
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Ketones and oxides: Camphor, piperi
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Camphor Tree 227 20 Citronellyl ace
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Table 9.12 Chemical composition (%)
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Camphor Tree 231 Table 9.14 Yield a
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Camphor Tree 233 Table 9.18 Physico
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Camphor Tree 235 To prevent bed-sor
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Camphor Tree 237 Chopra, R.N., Chop
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10 Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon a
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Family: Dermestidae Evorinea hirtel
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Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon and
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Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon and
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Leaf webber (Orthaga vitalis) Pests
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C. malabatrum Meliola beilschmiedia
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Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon and
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Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon and
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Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon and
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Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon and
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11 Pharmacology and Toxicology of C
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Anti-inflammatory action Pharmacolo
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Pharmacology and Toxicology of Cinn
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Pharmacology and Toxicology of Cinn
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Pharmacology and Toxicology of Cinn
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Table 11.1 Antibacterial effects of
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Pharmacology and Toxicology of Cinn
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Table 11.2 Antifungal activity of c
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Pharmacology and Toxicology of Cinn
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Pharmacology and Toxicology of Cinn
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Pharmacology and Toxicology of Cinn
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Pharmacology and Toxicology of Cinn
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Pharmacology and Toxicology of Cinn
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12 Economics and Marketing of Cinna
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Economics and Marketing of Cinnamon
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Economics and Marketing of Cinnamon
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Economics and Marketing of Cinnamon
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Table 12.7 US imports of whole cass
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Japan Economics and Marketing of Ci
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Economics and Marketing of Cinnamon
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Table 12.14 US exports of cassia an
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Table 12.16 World exports of cinnam
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Economics and Marketing of Cinnamon
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Table 12.20 US imports of cassia oi
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Economics and Marketing of Cinnamon
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S t 0.37Y t 0.63S t1 Economics an
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13 End Uses of Cinnamon and Cassia
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Table 13.3 Typical western pickling
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End Uses of Cinnamon and Cassia 315
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Table 13.9 Relative flavour intensi
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Cinnamon - in perfumes and beauty c
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End Uses of Cinnamon and Cassia 321
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Chinese Cassia Chinese cassia - as
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End Uses of Cinnamon and Cassia 325
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14 Cinnamon and Cassia - The Future
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Cinnamon and Cassia - The Future Vi
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Table 15.1 Chemical composition of
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Table 15.3 Constituents of leaf oil
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cloves. Leaves measure 3-12 1.5-4
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C. deschampsii Gamble C. deschampsi
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Table 15.7 Composition of essential
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Other Useful Species of Cinnamomum
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Table 15.9 Compounds identified in
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C. sulphuratum Nees Other Useful Sp
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Table 15.13 Percentage composition
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Other Useful Species of Cinnamomum
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Other Useful Species of Cinnamomum
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Other Useful Species of Cinnamomum
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Other Useful Species of Cinnamomum
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location 90 physico-chemical proper
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mass spectrometric studies 97 extra
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metabolic studies 267 sedative effe