The genus Cinnamomum

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Chinese Cassia 167 various regions make the establishment of forest resources extremely urgent. Reforestation by special trees such as cassia offers a convenient solution. The economical value of cassia trees helps to provide permanent agriculture and permanent settlement for ethnic minority people in high mountainous regions of Vietnam. Diseases and Pests The major destructive disease of cassia cinnamon nurseries in Vietnam is foot rot, caused by the soil borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum. This fungus thrives under warm and humid conditions. It fatally attacks the vascular system of mainly the roots. The disease usually arises after rain, when leaf infection is caused by Treptomyces. Application of Trichoderma is an effective control measure. The other major disease is caused by a Mycoplasma-like organism (MLO/Phytoplasma), called “witches broom” disease, which is found in nurseries, seedlings, young and old trees, and especially in the cassia gardens in Tra Giac hamlet (Tra Mi district, Quang Nam province) (Fig. 6.3). Studies were undertaken Figure 6.3 Witches broom disease in C. cassia.
168 Nguyen Kim Dao through the Witches Broom Disease Project of Tra Mi cinnamon by a study group from the Institute of Ecological and Biological Resources (IEBR, 1996). While the general cause of witches broom disease is Mycoplasma (Phytoplasma), infections by viruses, fungii, Azotobacter and insects are pre-disposing factors (Luc, 1999). Preventative measures for this disease include soaking the seeds in warm water (70 °C) containing an antibacterial medicine. To exterminate microorganisms, the chemicals suggested are: Daconil – 0.14%; Viben – 0.07%; Anvil – 0.15%; Tilt – 0.006%; Sconee – 0.02%; Formaldehyde – 0.37%; SEAL – 0.05%; Chloramphenicol – 0.25%; or pulverized petroleum and soap at a ratio of 1:1 at the concentration of 5% (Luc, 1999). The solution can exterminate thrips and does not influence the plant growth. The diseases of cassia are more common in the south than in the north of Vietnam and the south of China, because of the different weather conditions. The weather in the south is hot, wet, and the rainfall and light regime is good for insect and disease development. The incidence of diseases in private farms is lower than in state-owned farms because the farmers have much experience in growing and tending cassia as it is an asset and source of income for each family from one generation to another. Betrothal ceremonies have often included the cassia gardens, so the gardens are cared for greatly. Effective control measures suitable for small holders are not yet available. Witches broom disease has spread from nursery to gardens. Here the most important protective measure is phyto-sanitation. The seeds are selected from healthy mother plants and the land should be cleaned. Supplying sufficient nutrients and minerals and additional lime can be useful. Most diseases and pests occuring in the region can be effectively controlled by simple treatments with suitable fungicides and insecticides. Insect pests There are 14 insect species that are harmful to cassia gardens and forests (Table 6.4), two of which are serious pests: Liothrips sp. (thrips) and Anatkima insessa. Results from experiments proved that thrips cause yellow leaves, curly leaves, stunted excrescence in buds and treetops, and they transmit diseases from the exterior to the interior through stinging and juice sucking. Insecticide application is seldom practiced by growers. Physico-chemical Properties and Composition of Cassia Oil Crude cassia oil has the following physico-chemical properties (Guenther, 1950): Sp. gravity (15 °C) : 1.055–1.070 Optical rotation : 1°0 to 6°0 Refractive index (20 °C) : 1.600–1.606 Acid number : 6–15, in exceptional cases up to 20 Cinnamic aldehyde content : 75–90% Solubility : Readily soluble in 80% alcohol Boiling Point : 240–260 °C Crude cassia oil is subjected to rectification by the importing countries (mainly the USA). The rectification is done to remove adulterants such as rosin, kerosene and lead. Only rectified cassia oil is permitted to go into the market. The rectified cassia oil has the following physicochemical properties:
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Cinnamon and Cassia The genus Cinna
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Cinnamon and Cassia The genus Cinna
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This volume is dedicated to Prof. (
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viii Contents 10 Pests and diseases
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x Contributors Subhan C. Nath Regio
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xii Preface to the series compounds
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xiv Preface When we approached the
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1 Introduction P.N. Ravindran and K
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French Casse, Canefice, Canelle de
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Introduction 5 were accomplished sa
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Introduction 7 It seems quite proba
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Introduction 9 rose to 450,000 kg.
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Introduction 11 Sri Lanka has been
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Introduction 13 ISO (1977) Oil of c
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Botany and Crop Improvement of Cinn
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(a) (c) Botany and Crop Improvement
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Indian cassia leaves (known as ‘T
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1 2 Botany and Crop Improvement of
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Table 2.4 Stomatal characteristics
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1 3 4 Collenchyma Stone cell Phloem
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Table 2.6 Microscopic characteristi
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(k) Medullary 2 cells wide, radiall
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1 7 1a 7 Wood anatomy 4 6 2 2a Bota
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(a) (b) Morning Botany and Crop I
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1 2 3 4 6 8 9 Botany and Crop Impro
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viability is completely lost (Kanna
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Other tissue culture studies Botany
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Table 2.11 Bark and leaf oil consti
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Table 2.13 Growth and yield paramet
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Little crop improvement work has go
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Chemistry of Cinnamon and Cassia 81
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Table 3.4 Volatile constituents ide
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HO Chemistry of Cinnamon and Cassia
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-Humulene 1.30 0.57 0.12 1.40 -Cube
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1 3 2 4 4 5 7 6 8 10 9 12 11 13 14
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1147 Isoborneol 0.36 0.55 1158 Born
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opportunities lies in the new centu
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R OH 4 HO O O O OH Chemistry of Cin
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p-Cymene 13 21.35 0.82 -Copaene 0.4
Page 134 and 135: (E)-cinnamyl acetate 0.1 0.2-2.2 -3
Page 136 and 137: Annex 3.3 The chemical structure of
Page 138 and 139: 4 Cultivation and Management of Cin
Page 140 and 141: Figure 4.2 Field plantation of cinn
Page 142 and 143: the age of three to four months exc
Page 144 and 145: Cultivation and Management of Cinna
Page 146 and 147: Cultivation and Management of Cinna
Page 148 and 149: HARVESTED CINNAMON Cutting Extracti
Page 150 and 151: (a) (b) Figure 5.3 (a) Cinnamon pee
Page 152 and 153: Chips Harvesting, Processing, and Q
Page 154 and 155: cassia oils, is obtained from disti
Page 156 and 157: KETTLE FURNACE Harvesting, Processi
Page 158 and 159: the oleoresin is stored in suitable
Page 160 and 161: Grades The Cinnamon bark shall have
Page 162 and 163: Quality of Reagents Unless specifie
Page 164 and 165: Cinnamon powder Harvesting, Process
Page 166 and 167: Table 5A.5 Chemical requirements Ha
Page 168 and 169: Harvesting, Processing, and Quality
Page 170 and 171: Special protection information Resp
Page 172 and 173: Ash Refer to Annex 5.3. Acid insolu
Page 174 and 175: Chinese Cassia 157 Figure 6.1 Cinna
Page 176 and 177: Figure 6.2 A 15-year old plantation
Page 178 and 179: Chinese Cassia 161 careful harrowin
Page 180 and 181: make it easier to climb and to avoi
Page 182 and 183: Adulterations and substitutes In ea
Page 186 and 187: Table 6.4 Insect pests of cassia ci
Page 188 and 189: Chinese Cassia 171 Table 6.5 Compos
Page 190 and 191: Trace Methyl eugenol Trace Benzoic
Page 192 and 193: Table 6.9 Comparative percentages,
Page 194 and 195: Chinese Cassia 177 (3-5°C) or due
Page 196 and 197: Chinese Cassia 179 curing diseases
Page 198 and 199: Chinese Cassia 181 different parts
Page 200 and 201: Chinese Cassia 183 Kashiwada, Y., N
Page 202 and 203: 7 Indonesian Cassia (Indonesian Cin
Page 204 and 205: propagation is possible through cut
Page 206 and 207: Indonesian Cassia (Indonesian Cinna
Page 208 and 209: Figure 7.3 Separation of bark by be
Page 210 and 211: the branch. The mycelium layer pene
Page 212 and 213: Table 7.4 The yield and characteris
Page 214 and 215: Conclusion In spite of the fact tha
Page 216 and 217: 8 Indian Cassia Akhil Baruah and Su
Page 218 and 219: Indian Cassia 201 pollen dehiscence
Page 220 and 221: Indian Cassia 203 Ecology and distr
Page 222 and 223: Table 8.1 Physico-chemical characte
Page 224 and 225: Indian Cassia 207 Table 8.4 Composi
Page 226 and 227: References Indian Cassia 209 Anonym
Page 228 and 229: 9 Camphor Tree K. Nirmal Babu, P.N.
Page 230 and 231: Sub-specific division of C. camphor
Page 232 and 233: Camphor Tree 215 succession species
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The condenser is the most bulky and
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Table 9.1 Relation between age of t
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Table 9.3 Yield of camphor and oil
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Camphor Tree 223 Yu-Sho oil: Specif
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Ketones and oxides: Camphor, piperi
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Camphor Tree 227 20 Citronellyl ace
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Table 9.12 Chemical composition (%)
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Camphor Tree 231 Table 9.14 Yield a
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Camphor Tree 233 Table 9.18 Physico
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Camphor Tree 235 To prevent bed-sor
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Camphor Tree 237 Chopra, R.N., Chop
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10 Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon a
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Family: Dermestidae Evorinea hirtel
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Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon and
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Leaf webber (Orthaga vitalis) Pests
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C. malabatrum Meliola beilschmiedia
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11 Pharmacology and Toxicology of C
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Anti-inflammatory action Pharmacolo
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Pharmacology and Toxicology of Cinn
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Table 11.1 Antibacterial effects of
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Table 11.2 Antifungal activity of c
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12 Economics and Marketing of Cinna
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Economics and Marketing of Cinnamon
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Table 12.7 US imports of whole cass
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Japan Economics and Marketing of Ci
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Table 12.14 US exports of cassia an
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Table 12.16 World exports of cinnam
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Table 12.20 US imports of cassia oi
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S t 0.37Y t 0.63S t1 Economics an
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13 End Uses of Cinnamon and Cassia
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Table 13.3 Typical western pickling
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End Uses of Cinnamon and Cassia 315
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Table 13.9 Relative flavour intensi
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Cinnamon - in perfumes and beauty c
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Chinese Cassia Chinese cassia - as
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14 Cinnamon and Cassia - The Future
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Cinnamon and Cassia - The Future Vi
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Table 15.1 Chemical composition of
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Table 15.3 Constituents of leaf oil
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cloves. Leaves measure 3-12 1.5-4
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C. deschampsii Gamble C. deschampsi
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Table 15.7 Composition of essential
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Other Useful Species of Cinnamomum
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Table 15.9 Compounds identified in
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C. sulphuratum Nees Other Useful Sp
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Table 15.13 Percentage composition
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location 90 physico-chemical proper
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mass spectrometric studies 97 extra
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metabolic studies 267 sedative effe
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The genus Cinnamomum

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