The genus Cinnamomum

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Botany and Crop Improvement of Cinnamon and Cassia 55 Infraspecific variability in C. malabatrum is evident from the divergence of some of the C. malabatrum collections from the rest. Bakker et al. (1992) carried out a phenetic analysis of a large number of Cinnamomum spp. using leaf anatomical characteristics. They applied cluster analysis and the phenogram constructed based on Manhatten distances indicated ten clusters. According to this indication C. burmannii and C. verum are in cluster 1, together with many other species. Within this cluster C. burmannii occupies an independent sub-cluster position, while C. verum is in another sub-cluster together with 21 other species (including C. tamala (Indian cassia), C. culitlawan, C. keralaense, C. sintok, etc.). C. cassia is in cluster 2. Different accessions of C. camphora are included in clusters 4, 9 and 10, thereby indicating the infraspecific variability present in this taxon. In clusters 1 and 2 the idioblast distribution shows the largest variation. Cluster 3 always possesses mucilage cells in both mesophyll layers and oil cells in spongy parenchyma. The species in cluster 4 can be recognised by the combination of the following features: presence of both idioblastic types in both layers; non-sclerified epidermal cells; and, a weakly or nonsclerified spongy parenchyma. Cluster 5 does not possess a discriminating leaf anatomical characteristic distribution. Cluster 6 lacks mucilage cells in the spongy parenchyma and also possesses non-sclerified epidermal cells and spongy parenchyma, a two-layered sclerified palisade parenchyma and penninerved leaves. Cluster 7 is characterised by the presence of oil and mucilage cells in both palisade and spongy layers, a thick lamina and cuticle, a two-layered sclerified palisade parenchyma and triplinerved leaves. Cluster 8 lacks oil cells and clusters 9 and 10 are characterised by the absence of mucilage cells. In these last three clusters the idioblast distribution pattern is the discriminating factor. Meissner (1864) has subdivided Cinnamomum into two sections, Malabathrum and Camphora, which was adopted by later florists like Hooker (1886). Further infrageneric studies have not been made so far (Kostermans, 1986). Bakker et al. (1992) tried to correlate leaf anatomical characteristics of the species with the existing classification. They found that most of the species under the section Malabathrum were in groups 1–3. All these species possess sclerified epidermal cells and/or palisade cells. Those species in the section Camphora, which fall in groups 4, 9 and 10, lack sclerified epidermal and palisade cells. Most neotropical species included in the study by Bakker et al. (1992) were transferred from other genera (such as Phoebe). These species occupy clusters 6 and 9. Nine of these species have penninerved leaves, and they all possess nonsclerified epidermal cells. Chemotaxonomy Shylaja (1984) and Ravindran et al. (1992) carried out chemotaxonomical studies on C. verum and some of its related taxa occurring in the Western Ghats of Kerala, India. They have analysed flavonoids, terpenoids and steroids and found much variation among species. C. verum, C. camphora, C. cassia and C. riparium are chemically very distinct among themselves and from other species. Much infraspecific chemical variability was noticed in C. malabatrum. They also found that Sri Lankan and Indian accessions of C. verum were chemically identical. The above workers also carried out a centroid clustering analysis of the flavonoid-triterpenoid data, which resulted in independent clustering of C. verum, C. riparium, C. cassia and C. camphora. Close clustering resulted between C. perrottettii and C. macrocarpum as well as between
56 P.N. Ravindran et al. C. malabatrum and C. nicolsonianum. Flavonoid complexity is greater in C. verum and C. camphora. The complexity in flavonoid pattern in Cinnamomum is found to be the result of o-methylation, which is considered an advanced characteristic in flavonoid evolution. It was also noticed that flavones have replaced the simpler flavonols which again is an advanced character in the evolutionary history of flavonoids (Crawford, 1978). Infraspecific chemical variability exists in many species of Cinnamomum (Table 2.8). Fujita (1967) attempted a sub-specific classification of many species based on volatile oil composition. Such infraspecific variability might have evolved as a result of interbreeding, and forces such as segregation, chance mutations, and isolation mechanisms acting on the populations. Tetenyi (1970) used the term “polychemism” to denote the simultaneous existence of more than one chemically distinct form in a species. This aspect is well studied in C. camphora. The Formosan camphor tree (C. camphora ssp. formosana) is known to have at least seven distinct chemovarieties (Tetenyi, 1970): chvar. Borneol chvar. Camphor chvar. Safrole chvar. Sesquiterpene alcohol chvar. Cineol chvar. Linalool chvar. Sesquiterpene Table 2.8 Infraspecific chemical variability in Cinnamomum species (compiled from published literature) Species and references Chemovar Major component C. camphora A Camphor type (Camphor 80%) Hirota, 1951 Hirota and Hiroi, 1967 Shi, 1989 B Linalool type (Linalool 80% mono terpenes 10%) Wan-Yang et al., 1989 Shi, 1989 C Cineole type (Cineole 76% -terpinol 20%) Wan-Yang et al., 1989 D Nirolidol type (nerolidol 40–60% sesquiterpenoids 20% monoterpenoids 10%) E Isonerolidol type (57% isonerolidol) F Safrole type (safrole 80% monoterpenoids 10%) G Borneol type (Borneol 80%) C. bejolghota A Linalool -terpineole Baruah and Nath, 1997 B Linalool -phellandrene C Linalool C. cecidodaphne A Methyleugenol Birch, 1963 B Methyleugenol 45% Safrole 20% C Safrole (major) elemicin myristicin (minor) C. culitlawan A Safrole 70–80% Spoon-Spruit, 1956 B Safrole (35–53%) methyl eugenol (41–50%) C Eugenol (80–100%)
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Cinnamon and Cassia The genus Cinna
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Cinnamon and Cassia The genus Cinna
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This volume is dedicated to Prof. (
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viii Contents 10 Pests and diseases
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x Contributors Subhan C. Nath Regio
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xii Preface to the series compounds
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xiv Preface When we approached the
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1 Introduction P.N. Ravindran and K
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French Casse, Canefice, Canelle de
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Page 24 and 25: Introduction 7 It seems quite proba
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Page 28 and 29: Introduction 11 Sri Lanka has been
Page 30 and 31: Introduction 13 ISO (1977) Oil of c
Page 32 and 33: Botany and Crop Improvement of Cinn
Page 34 and 35: (a) (c) Botany and Crop Improvement
Page 38 and 39: Indian cassia leaves (known as ‘T
Page 46 and 47: 1 2 Botany and Crop Improvement of
Page 48 and 49: Table 2.4 Stomatal characteristics
Page 50 and 51: 1 3 4 Collenchyma Stone cell Phloem
Page 54 and 55: Table 2.6 Microscopic characteristi
Page 56 and 57: (k) Medullary 2 cells wide, radiall
Page 60 and 61: 1 7 1a 7 Wood anatomy 4 6 2 2a Bota
Page 62 and 63: (a) (b) Morning Botany and Crop I
Page 64 and 65: 1 2 3 4 6 8 9 Botany and Crop Impro
Page 78 and 79: viability is completely lost (Kanna
Page 82 and 83: Other tissue culture studies Botany
Page 84 and 85: Table 2.11 Bark and leaf oil consti
Page 86 and 87: Table 2.13 Growth and yield paramet
Page 90 and 91: Little crop improvement work has go
Page 98 and 99: Chemistry of Cinnamon and Cassia 81
Page 104 and 105: Table 3.4 Volatile constituents ide
Page 110 and 111: HO Chemistry of Cinnamon and Cassia
Page 116 and 117: -Humulene 1.30 0.57 0.12 1.40 -Cube
Page 118 and 119: 1 3 2 4 4 5 7 6 8 10 9 12 11 13 14
Page 120 and 121: 1147 Isoborneol 0.36 0.55 1158 Born
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Chemistry of Cinnamon and Cassia 10
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opportunities lies in the new centu
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R OH 4 HO O O O OH Chemistry of Cin
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p-Cymene 13 21.35 0.82 -Copaene 0.4
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(E)-cinnamyl acetate 0.1 0.2-2.2 -3
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Annex 3.3 The chemical structure of
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4 Cultivation and Management of Cin
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Figure 4.2 Field plantation of cinn
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the age of three to four months exc
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Cultivation and Management of Cinna
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Cultivation and Management of Cinna
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HARVESTED CINNAMON Cutting Extracti
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(a) (b) Figure 5.3 (a) Cinnamon pee
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Chips Harvesting, Processing, and Q
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cassia oils, is obtained from disti
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KETTLE FURNACE Harvesting, Processi
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the oleoresin is stored in suitable
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Grades The Cinnamon bark shall have
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Quality of Reagents Unless specifie
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Cinnamon powder Harvesting, Process
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Table 5A.5 Chemical requirements Ha
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Harvesting, Processing, and Quality
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Special protection information Resp
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Ash Refer to Annex 5.3. Acid insolu
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Chinese Cassia 157 Figure 6.1 Cinna
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Figure 6.2 A 15-year old plantation
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Chinese Cassia 161 careful harrowin
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make it easier to climb and to avoi
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Adulterations and substitutes In ea
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Chinese Cassia 167 various regions
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Table 6.4 Insect pests of cassia ci
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Chinese Cassia 171 Table 6.5 Compos
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Trace Methyl eugenol Trace Benzoic
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Table 6.9 Comparative percentages,
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Chinese Cassia 177 (3-5°C) or due
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Chinese Cassia 179 curing diseases
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Chinese Cassia 181 different parts
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Chinese Cassia 183 Kashiwada, Y., N
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7 Indonesian Cassia (Indonesian Cin
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propagation is possible through cut
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Indonesian Cassia (Indonesian Cinna
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Figure 7.3 Separation of bark by be
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the branch. The mycelium layer pene
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Table 7.4 The yield and characteris
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Conclusion In spite of the fact tha
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8 Indian Cassia Akhil Baruah and Su
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Indian Cassia 201 pollen dehiscence
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Indian Cassia 203 Ecology and distr
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Table 8.1 Physico-chemical characte
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Indian Cassia 207 Table 8.4 Composi
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References Indian Cassia 209 Anonym
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9 Camphor Tree K. Nirmal Babu, P.N.
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Sub-specific division of C. camphor
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Camphor Tree 215 succession species
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The condenser is the most bulky and
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Table 9.1 Relation between age of t
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Table 9.3 Yield of camphor and oil
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Camphor Tree 223 Yu-Sho oil: Specif
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Ketones and oxides: Camphor, piperi
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Camphor Tree 227 20 Citronellyl ace
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Table 9.12 Chemical composition (%)
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Camphor Tree 231 Table 9.14 Yield a
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Camphor Tree 233 Table 9.18 Physico
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Camphor Tree 235 To prevent bed-sor
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Camphor Tree 237 Chopra, R.N., Chop
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10 Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon a
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Family: Dermestidae Evorinea hirtel
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Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon and
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Leaf webber (Orthaga vitalis) Pests
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C. malabatrum Meliola beilschmiedia
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11 Pharmacology and Toxicology of C
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Anti-inflammatory action Pharmacolo
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Pharmacology and Toxicology of Cinn
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Table 11.1 Antibacterial effects of
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Table 11.2 Antifungal activity of c
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12 Economics and Marketing of Cinna
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Economics and Marketing of Cinnamon
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Table 12.7 US imports of whole cass
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Japan Economics and Marketing of Ci
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Table 12.14 US exports of cassia an
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Table 12.16 World exports of cinnam
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Table 12.20 US imports of cassia oi
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S t 0.37Y t 0.63S t1 Economics an
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13 End Uses of Cinnamon and Cassia
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Table 13.3 Typical western pickling
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End Uses of Cinnamon and Cassia 315
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Table 13.9 Relative flavour intensi
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Cinnamon - in perfumes and beauty c
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Chinese Cassia Chinese cassia - as
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14 Cinnamon and Cassia - The Future
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Cinnamon and Cassia - The Future Vi
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Table 15.1 Chemical composition of
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Table 15.3 Constituents of leaf oil
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cloves. Leaves measure 3-12 1.5-4
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C. deschampsii Gamble C. deschampsi
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Table 15.7 Composition of essential
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Other Useful Species of Cinnamomum
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Table 15.9 Compounds identified in
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C. sulphuratum Nees Other Useful Sp
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Table 15.13 Percentage composition
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location 90 physico-chemical proper
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mass spectrometric studies 97 extra
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metabolic studies 267 sedative effe
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The genus Cinnamomum

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