The genus Cinnamomum

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Economics and Marketing of Cinnamon and Cassia 289 Table 12.4 Growth estimates for area and production of cinnamon in major producing countries Countries Estimated compound growth rate (%) than the world average. Vietnam outperformed all other cinnamon producing countries in area expansion (8.2%) and production (12.1%). Sri Lanka, the major producer of true cinnamon, had a marginal increase of 0.7% per annum for the entire period from 1971 to 2000. Seychelles is the only country that had a negative growth rate in area expansion and production. Productivity 1971–80 1981–90 1991–2000 Overall Area Indonesia 5.43 3.18 3.98 5.10 China 5.30 18.80 27.70 – Sri Lanka 1.07 1.00 1.60 0.39 Seychelles 12.91 11.41 6.33 4.17 Madagascar 3.40 19.13 5.13 7.68 Vietnam – 14.87 5.13 8.21 World 1.10 4.46 7.10 5.22 Production Indonesia 8.02 8.22 4.23 7.78 China 5.35 8.10 4.62 7.65 Sri Lanka 0.85 1.05 0.08 0.77 Seychelles 14.5 14.39 4.66 4.61 Madagascar 3.5 19.1 5.2 7.68 Vietnam 7.6 17.91 4.34 12.11 World 3.41 6.70 4.09 5.63 The average annual productivity is around 350 kg of ‘Sri Lankan Cinnamon’ per hectare. In Madagascar, the average annual yield from a cinnamon plantation is around 180–220 kg/ha of cinnamon sticks in quills, and 60–65 kg/ha of cinnamon chips. Productivity of true cinnamon in Sri Lanka was around 4700 kg/ha only, and 1999–2000 registered only a marginal increase over the average (Ratwatte, 1991). In Vietnam the mean productivity is around 6500 kg/ha of dry bark and 280 kg of essential oil from leaf distillation for a 20-year cycle (Anon, 2001). The highest recorded yield of above 8000 kg/ha is from China in Chinese cassia and the lowest productivity is registered from Seychelles in true cinnamon. In China the productivity of cassia cinnamon is around 3–5/ha per year. Cinnamon and cassia are perennial trees and are cultivated under natural forestry conditions. Not much effort on productivity improvement has been made in these crops. Trade and Commerce World trade in Sri Lankan cinnamon is centered around London and the Dutch ports of Amsterdam and Rotterdam, which are the main transshipment points for the leading buyers such as Mexico, US, UK, Germany, Holland, Colombia, etc. The traded quantity
290 M.S. Madan and S. Kannan of cinnamon was between 7500t and 10,000t annually. Sri Lanka contributes about 80–90%, the remaining comes from Seychelles and Madagascar. The world trade in cassia is between 20,000 and 25,000 annually, of which Indonesia accounts for twothirds and China most of the remainder. Other producers include Vietnam and India. About 2000–3000t of cassia bark are exported from Vietnam annually. Taking Sri Lanka, Madagascar and Seychelles as the cinnamon exporting countries, during 1975 the ratio of cinnamon to cassia in the total world export was 53:47. The ratio came down to an average of 19:81 in the 1980s and in the 1990s the ratio further came down to 13:87 of the average world export of 75,763 t of cinnamon and cassia. The market for cinnamon and cassia Most countries import some quantity of cinnamon or cassia or both. In many of the importing countries cinnamon is the most important spice commodity in use after black pepper. The available statistics do not differentiate between cinnamon and cassia, as both are treated under the common name of cinnamon. However, whole and ground cinnamon, bark and leaf oils are tabulated separately in the export-import statistics. Imports of total cinnamon (including cassia) by major-importing countries are given in Table 12.5. The USA is the largest importer of cinnamon (mostly cassia), averaging 18,173t during 1997–99, which is about 20% of the world exports. During 1999 India was the second largest importer (12,467t). In both cases, based on the country of origin, it can be concluded that the maximum imported commodity was cassia. The Item-wise import of cinnamon and cassia by India during 1995–96 to 1999–2000 is given in Table 12.6. The main items of import are cinnamon, cassia and tejpat. The total imports went up many-fold between the reference period. Cassia and cassia leaf (tejpat) account for more than 90% of the total imports. United States of America Imports of cassia and cinnamon (whole) are given in Table 12.7, while imports of ground cinnamon and cassia are given in Table 12.8. Indonesia is the major supplier (90%) to the USA, followed by Sri Lanka and Vietnam. India also supplies a sizable quantity to the US market. The annual imports of cassia and cinnamon averaged 9262 t in 1976–80 and has almost doubled (18,175 t) in recent years (FAOSTAT, 2000). The ratio of cassia to cinnamon in the total imports by the USA was previously 2:1, but recently the import of cassia has increased. The cinnamon market was supplied almost solely by Sri Lanka, though a small quantity was shipped from Seychelles. These countries supplied 7% of the unground cinnamon imported into the USA during 2000. However, in terms of value cinnamon accounts for about 28% of the total, indicating the higher price of cinnamon in comparison to cassia in the USA market. Indonesia was the leading supplier of cassia from 1996–2000, followed by Vietnam (USDA/FAS, 1998, 1999). European Union The combined cinnamon and cassia imports into European Union countries is given in Table 12.9. Although cinnamon imports into the European Union are comparatively small, it is an important market from the point of view of end use. European countries like Germany, Netherlands, France and the United Kingdom are the major re-exporting
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Cinnamon and Cassia The genus Cinna
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Cinnamon and Cassia The genus Cinna
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This volume is dedicated to Prof. (
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viii Contents 10 Pests and diseases
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x Contributors Subhan C. Nath Regio
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xii Preface to the series compounds
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xiv Preface When we approached the
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1 Introduction P.N. Ravindran and K
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French Casse, Canefice, Canelle de
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Introduction 5 were accomplished sa
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Introduction 7 It seems quite proba
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Introduction 9 rose to 450,000 kg.
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Introduction 11 Sri Lanka has been
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Introduction 13 ISO (1977) Oil of c
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Botany and Crop Improvement of Cinn
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(a) (c) Botany and Crop Improvement
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Indian cassia leaves (known as ‘T
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1 2 Botany and Crop Improvement of
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Table 2.4 Stomatal characteristics
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1 3 4 Collenchyma Stone cell Phloem
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Table 2.6 Microscopic characteristi
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(k) Medullary 2 cells wide, radiall
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1 7 1a 7 Wood anatomy 4 6 2 2a Bota
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(a) (b) Morning Botany and Crop I
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1 2 3 4 6 8 9 Botany and Crop Impro
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viability is completely lost (Kanna
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Other tissue culture studies Botany
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Table 2.11 Bark and leaf oil consti
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Table 2.13 Growth and yield paramet
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Little crop improvement work has go
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Chemistry of Cinnamon and Cassia 81
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Table 3.4 Volatile constituents ide
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HO Chemistry of Cinnamon and Cassia
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-Humulene 1.30 0.57 0.12 1.40 -Cube
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1 3 2 4 4 5 7 6 8 10 9 12 11 13 14
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1147 Isoborneol 0.36 0.55 1158 Born
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opportunities lies in the new centu
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R OH 4 HO O O O OH Chemistry of Cin
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p-Cymene 13 21.35 0.82 -Copaene 0.4
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(E)-cinnamyl acetate 0.1 0.2-2.2 -3
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Annex 3.3 The chemical structure of
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4 Cultivation and Management of Cin
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Figure 4.2 Field plantation of cinn
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the age of three to four months exc
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Cultivation and Management of Cinna
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Cultivation and Management of Cinna
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HARVESTED CINNAMON Cutting Extracti
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(a) (b) Figure 5.3 (a) Cinnamon pee
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Chips Harvesting, Processing, and Q
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cassia oils, is obtained from disti
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KETTLE FURNACE Harvesting, Processi
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the oleoresin is stored in suitable
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Grades The Cinnamon bark shall have
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Quality of Reagents Unless specifie
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Cinnamon powder Harvesting, Process
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Table 5A.5 Chemical requirements Ha
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Harvesting, Processing, and Quality
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Special protection information Resp
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Ash Refer to Annex 5.3. Acid insolu
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Chinese Cassia 157 Figure 6.1 Cinna
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Figure 6.2 A 15-year old plantation
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Chinese Cassia 161 careful harrowin
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make it easier to climb and to avoi
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Adulterations and substitutes In ea
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Chinese Cassia 167 various regions
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Table 6.4 Insect pests of cassia ci
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Chinese Cassia 171 Table 6.5 Compos
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Trace Methyl eugenol Trace Benzoic
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Table 6.9 Comparative percentages,
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Chinese Cassia 177 (3-5°C) or due
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Chinese Cassia 179 curing diseases
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Chinese Cassia 181 different parts
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Chinese Cassia 183 Kashiwada, Y., N
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7 Indonesian Cassia (Indonesian Cin
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propagation is possible through cut
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Indonesian Cassia (Indonesian Cinna
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Figure 7.3 Separation of bark by be
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the branch. The mycelium layer pene
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Table 7.4 The yield and characteris
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Conclusion In spite of the fact tha
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8 Indian Cassia Akhil Baruah and Su
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Indian Cassia 201 pollen dehiscence
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Indian Cassia 203 Ecology and distr
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Table 8.1 Physico-chemical characte
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Indian Cassia 207 Table 8.4 Composi
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References Indian Cassia 209 Anonym
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9 Camphor Tree K. Nirmal Babu, P.N.
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Sub-specific division of C. camphor
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Camphor Tree 215 succession species
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The condenser is the most bulky and
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Table 9.1 Relation between age of t
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Table 9.3 Yield of camphor and oil
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Camphor Tree 223 Yu-Sho oil: Specif
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Ketones and oxides: Camphor, piperi
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Camphor Tree 227 20 Citronellyl ace
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Table 9.12 Chemical composition (%)
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Camphor Tree 231 Table 9.14 Yield a
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Camphor Tree 233 Table 9.18 Physico
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Camphor Tree 235 To prevent bed-sor
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Camphor Tree 237 Chopra, R.N., Chop
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Page 258 and 259: Family: Dermestidae Evorinea hirtel
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Page 264 and 265: Leaf webber (Orthaga vitalis) Pests
Page 266 and 267: C. malabatrum Meliola beilschmiedia
Page 276 and 277: 11 Pharmacology and Toxicology of C
Page 278 and 279: Anti-inflammatory action Pharmacolo
Page 280 and 281: Pharmacology and Toxicology of Cinn
Page 286 and 287: Table 11.1 Antibacterial effects of
Page 290 and 291: Table 11.2 Antifungal activity of c
Page 302 and 303: 12 Economics and Marketing of Cinna
Page 304 and 305: Economics and Marketing of Cinnamon
Page 310 and 311: Table 12.7 US imports of whole cass
Page 312 and 313: Japan Economics and Marketing of Ci
Page 316 and 317: Table 12.14 US exports of cassia an
Page 318 and 319: Table 12.16 World exports of cinnam
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Page 326 and 327: S t 0.37Y t 0.63S t1 Economics an
Page 328 and 329: 13 End Uses of Cinnamon and Cassia
Page 330 and 331: Table 13.3 Typical western pickling
Page 332 and 333: End Uses of Cinnamon and Cassia 315
Page 334 and 335: Table 13.9 Relative flavour intensi
Page 336 and 337: Cinnamon - in perfumes and beauty c
Page 340 and 341: Chinese Cassia Chinese cassia - as
Page 344 and 345: 14 Cinnamon and Cassia - The Future
Page 346 and 347: Cinnamon and Cassia - The Future Vi
Page 348 and 349: Table 15.1 Chemical composition of
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Page 354 and 355: C. deschampsii Gamble C. deschampsi
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Table 15.7 Composition of essential
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Other Useful Species of Cinnamomum
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Table 15.9 Compounds identified in
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C. sulphuratum Nees Other Useful Sp
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Table 15.13 Percentage composition
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location 90 physico-chemical proper
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mass spectrometric studies 97 extra
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metabolic studies 267 sedative effe
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The genus Cinnamomum

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