The genus Cinnamomum

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Table 6.4 Insect pests of cassia cinnamon No. Scientific name Habitat Affected part of trees I. Icoptera 1. Macrotesmes sp. Cinnamon forest Trunk, base II. Thysanoptera 2. Liothrips sp. Nursery III. Lepidoptera Fam. Pyralidae 3. Onaphanocrocis medinacis Nursery Leaves Fam. Tortricidae 4. Cophoprona sp. Cinnamon forest IV. Orthoptera Fam. Gryllidae 5. Brachytrupes portentosus Nursery Young tree Fam. Grillotapidea 6. Grillotubpa africana Nursery Young tree Fam. Acrididae 7. Caryandra diminuta Nursery Leaves V. Heteroptera Fam. Pantatomicdae 8. Nezera viridula Nursery Leaves 9. Cletus sp. Cinnamon forest Leaves VI. Plecoptera Fam. Jassidae 10. Empoasca flavescan Nursery Leaves 11. Nephotettix sp. Nursery Leaves 12. Anatkima insessa Nursery Leaves Fam. Margarodidae 13. Icerga sp. Cinnamon forest Leaves Tetranychidae 14. Schizotetranichus sp. Cinnamon forest Leaves Chinese Cassia 169 Specific gravity (at 25 °C) : 1.046–1.059 Optical rotation : 0°40 to 030 Refractive index (20°) : 1.6045–1.6135 Aldehyde content : 88–99% Solubility : Soluble in 70% alcohol Rectified cassia oil is a mobile, yellow to slightly brownish, highly refractive oil possessing a characteristic sweet and burning flavour that is typical of cassia bark. Cassia oil chemistry has attracted the attention of many workers. Early information available on cassia oil chemistry was summarised by Guenther (1950). Adulteration of cassia oil is a common practice and hence efficient methods have also been evolved (Zhu et al., 1996) by importing countries to detect such adulteration (mostly with the addition of synthetic cinnamaldehyde). Cassia oil resembles the Ceylon cinnamon bark oil in its composition, the chief constituent being cinnamaldehyde. Guenther (1950) identified the following substances in Chinese cassia oil: Cinnamic aldehyde (cinnamaldehyde) – (80–95%), cinnamyl acetate, phenyl propyl acetate, salicylaldehyde, cinnamic acid, salicylic acid and benzoic acids, higher fatty
170 Nguyen Kim Dao acids, coumarin, benzaldehyde, O-methoxy benzaldehyde and methyl-O-coumaraldehyde. In the natural oil the auto-oxidation of cinnamic aldehyde to cinnamic acid is prevented by the presence of cinnamyl acetate, which acts as a very efficient preservative. In 1972 Ter Heide examined the chemical composition of a crude essential oil from China using GC, TLC, NMR, MS and IR, in addition to using authentic reference compounds and GC retention indices. He identified benzaldehyde, salicylaldehyde, 2-methoxy cinnamaldehyde, 2-hydroxy acetophenone, methyl benzoate, phenyl ethyl acetate, 3-phenyl propyl acetate, trans-cinnamyl acetate, trans-2-methoxy-cinnamyl acetate, phenyl ethyl alcohol, trans-cinnamyl alcohol, coumarin, phenol, O-cresol, guaicol, 2-vinyl phenol, chavicol, 4-ethyl guaneol and eugenol. The following acids were also identified: hexanoic, heptanoic, octanoic, benzoic, cinnamic, methoxy cinnamic, dihydro cinnamic and 2-methoxy dihydroxy cinnamic acids. In 1977 Senanayake compared the chemical composition of lab-distilled leaf and bark oils with that of a commercial oil. The results of the study indicated a cinnamaldehyde content of 69.6%, 87.0% and 77.2% in leaf, bark and commercial oils, respectively. The coumarin content of the oil was found to be very high (8.06%, 0.28%, 15.3% respectively in leaf, bark and commercial oils (Tables 6.5 and 6.6). Lawrence (2001) recently summarised a series of studies on Chinese cassia oil. Zhu et al. (1993) analysed the cassia leaf oil from China and recorded the compounds listed in Table 6.5. Vernin et al. (1990) carried out a detailed compositional analysis of cassia bark oil (Table 6.6). In 1994 Vernin et al. analysed cassia bark powder using head space GC/MS and recorded the substances given in Tables 6.7 and 6.8. Further reports on the chemical composition of cassia oil were published by Jayatilaka et al. (1995), Ehlers et al. (1995) Miller et al. (1995) and Kwon et al. (1996). Kwon et al. (1996) isolated salicylaldehyde from bark extract and reported that this compound inhibited farnesyl protein transferase activity. In 1998 Li et al. made a detailed comparison of leaf and bark oils from Chinese cassia grown in Yunnan province using GC/MS (Table 6.9). Li and Yuan (1999) reported 36 compounds in their analysis of a cassia oil sample from China by GC and GC/MS (Table 6.10). Gong et al. (2001) developed a complex interactive optimisation procedure to resolve co-eluting peaks in a GC/MS analysis of cassia bark grown in four different geographical regions of China. Kondou et al. (1999) analysed the commercial cassia barks (different grades such as Xijang and Donxing bark from China and Yen Bai and Mien Nam barks from Vietnam) in order to bring out the salient differences among them based on the contents of coumarin, cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic acid, cinnamyl alcohol, cinnamic acetate and eugenol (Table 6.11). In addition to the components present in the essential oil, a number of diterpenes named cinncassioles have been isolated from cassia bark. They include cinncassiols A, B and C 1, and their glucosides, cinncassiols C 2 and C 3, cinncassiols D 1, D 2 and D 3, and their glucosides, cinncassiol E, cinnzeylanol, cinnzeylanin, anhydrocinnzeylanol and anhydrocinnzeylanin (Yagi et al., 1980; Nohara et al., 1980a,b,c, 1981, 1982, 1985; Kashiwada et al., 1981). The following compounds were also isolated from the stem bark of cassia:
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Cinnamon and Cassia The genus Cinna
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Cinnamon and Cassia The genus Cinna
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This volume is dedicated to Prof. (
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viii Contents 10 Pests and diseases
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x Contributors Subhan C. Nath Regio
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xii Preface to the series compounds
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xiv Preface When we approached the
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1 Introduction P.N. Ravindran and K
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French Casse, Canefice, Canelle de
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Introduction 5 were accomplished sa
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Introduction 7 It seems quite proba
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Introduction 9 rose to 450,000 kg.
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Introduction 11 Sri Lanka has been
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Introduction 13 ISO (1977) Oil of c
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Botany and Crop Improvement of Cinn
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(a) (c) Botany and Crop Improvement
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Indian cassia leaves (known as ‘T
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1 2 Botany and Crop Improvement of
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Table 2.4 Stomatal characteristics
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1 3 4 Collenchyma Stone cell Phloem
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Table 2.6 Microscopic characteristi
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(k) Medullary 2 cells wide, radiall
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1 7 1a 7 Wood anatomy 4 6 2 2a Bota
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(a) (b) Morning Botany and Crop I
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1 2 3 4 6 8 9 Botany and Crop Impro
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viability is completely lost (Kanna
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Other tissue culture studies Botany
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Table 2.11 Bark and leaf oil consti
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Table 2.13 Growth and yield paramet
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Little crop improvement work has go
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Chemistry of Cinnamon and Cassia 81
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Table 3.4 Volatile constituents ide
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HO Chemistry of Cinnamon and Cassia
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-Humulene 1.30 0.57 0.12 1.40 -Cube
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1 3 2 4 4 5 7 6 8 10 9 12 11 13 14
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1147 Isoborneol 0.36 0.55 1158 Born
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opportunities lies in the new centu
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R OH 4 HO O O O OH Chemistry of Cin
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p-Cymene 13 21.35 0.82 -Copaene 0.4
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(E)-cinnamyl acetate 0.1 0.2-2.2 -3
Page 136 and 137: Annex 3.3 The chemical structure of
Page 138 and 139: 4 Cultivation and Management of Cin
Page 140 and 141: Figure 4.2 Field plantation of cinn
Page 142 and 143: the age of three to four months exc
Page 144 and 145: Cultivation and Management of Cinna
Page 146 and 147: Cultivation and Management of Cinna
Page 148 and 149: HARVESTED CINNAMON Cutting Extracti
Page 150 and 151: (a) (b) Figure 5.3 (a) Cinnamon pee
Page 152 and 153: Chips Harvesting, Processing, and Q
Page 154 and 155: cassia oils, is obtained from disti
Page 156 and 157: KETTLE FURNACE Harvesting, Processi
Page 158 and 159: the oleoresin is stored in suitable
Page 160 and 161: Grades The Cinnamon bark shall have
Page 162 and 163: Quality of Reagents Unless specifie
Page 164 and 165: Cinnamon powder Harvesting, Process
Page 166 and 167: Table 5A.5 Chemical requirements Ha
Page 168 and 169: Harvesting, Processing, and Quality
Page 170 and 171: Special protection information Resp
Page 172 and 173: Ash Refer to Annex 5.3. Acid insolu
Page 174 and 175: Chinese Cassia 157 Figure 6.1 Cinna
Page 176 and 177: Figure 6.2 A 15-year old plantation
Page 178 and 179: Chinese Cassia 161 careful harrowin
Page 180 and 181: make it easier to climb and to avoi
Page 182 and 183: Adulterations and substitutes In ea
Page 184 and 185: Chinese Cassia 167 various regions
Page 188 and 189: Chinese Cassia 171 Table 6.5 Compos
Page 190 and 191: Trace Methyl eugenol Trace Benzoic
Page 192 and 193: Table 6.9 Comparative percentages,
Page 194 and 195: Chinese Cassia 177 (3-5°C) or due
Page 196 and 197: Chinese Cassia 179 curing diseases
Page 198 and 199: Chinese Cassia 181 different parts
Page 200 and 201: Chinese Cassia 183 Kashiwada, Y., N
Page 202 and 203: 7 Indonesian Cassia (Indonesian Cin
Page 204 and 205: propagation is possible through cut
Page 206 and 207: Indonesian Cassia (Indonesian Cinna
Page 208 and 209: Figure 7.3 Separation of bark by be
Page 210 and 211: the branch. The mycelium layer pene
Page 212 and 213: Table 7.4 The yield and characteris
Page 214 and 215: Conclusion In spite of the fact tha
Page 216 and 217: 8 Indian Cassia Akhil Baruah and Su
Page 218 and 219: Indian Cassia 201 pollen dehiscence
Page 220 and 221: Indian Cassia 203 Ecology and distr
Page 222 and 223: Table 8.1 Physico-chemical characte
Page 224 and 225: Indian Cassia 207 Table 8.4 Composi
Page 226 and 227: References Indian Cassia 209 Anonym
Page 228 and 229: 9 Camphor Tree K. Nirmal Babu, P.N.
Page 230 and 231: Sub-specific division of C. camphor
Page 232 and 233: Camphor Tree 215 succession species
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Table 9.1 Relation between age of t
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Table 9.3 Yield of camphor and oil
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Camphor Tree 223 Yu-Sho oil: Specif
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Ketones and oxides: Camphor, piperi
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Camphor Tree 227 20 Citronellyl ace
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Table 9.12 Chemical composition (%)
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Camphor Tree 231 Table 9.14 Yield a
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Camphor Tree 233 Table 9.18 Physico
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Camphor Tree 235 To prevent bed-sor
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Camphor Tree 237 Chopra, R.N., Chop
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10 Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon a
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Family: Dermestidae Evorinea hirtel
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Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon and
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Leaf webber (Orthaga vitalis) Pests
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C. malabatrum Meliola beilschmiedia
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11 Pharmacology and Toxicology of C
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Anti-inflammatory action Pharmacolo
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Pharmacology and Toxicology of Cinn
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Table 11.1 Antibacterial effects of
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Table 11.2 Antifungal activity of c
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12 Economics and Marketing of Cinna
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Economics and Marketing of Cinnamon
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Table 12.7 US imports of whole cass
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Japan Economics and Marketing of Ci
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Table 12.14 US exports of cassia an
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Table 12.16 World exports of cinnam
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Table 12.20 US imports of cassia oi
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S t 0.37Y t 0.63S t1 Economics an
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13 End Uses of Cinnamon and Cassia
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Table 13.3 Typical western pickling
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End Uses of Cinnamon and Cassia 315
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Table 13.9 Relative flavour intensi
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Cinnamon - in perfumes and beauty c
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Chinese Cassia Chinese cassia - as
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14 Cinnamon and Cassia - The Future
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Cinnamon and Cassia - The Future Vi
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Table 15.1 Chemical composition of
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Table 15.3 Constituents of leaf oil
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cloves. Leaves measure 3-12 1.5-4
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C. deschampsii Gamble C. deschampsi
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Table 15.7 Composition of essential
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Other Useful Species of Cinnamomum
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Table 15.9 Compounds identified in
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C. sulphuratum Nees Other Useful Sp
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Table 15.13 Percentage composition
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location 90 physico-chemical proper
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mass spectrometric studies 97 extra
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metabolic studies 267 sedative effe
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The genus Cinnamomum

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