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Eric Kong accuracy <strong>of</strong> prediction <strong>of</strong> a concept or model and whe<strong>the</strong>r that concept or model can guide <strong>the</strong>m for daily decision making. Despite that NLP has endured across several fields for decades, very little research today has been conducted to <strong>of</strong>fer a better understanding <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> application <strong>of</strong> NLP in knowledge management and organisational learning. The study conducted by Tosey et al. (2005), for example, examined <strong>the</strong> relationships between NLP and management learning. However, <strong>the</strong>ir approach was primarily using NLP as an analytical method to identify linguistic differences in interviews through a longitudinal case study. Never<strong>the</strong>less, Tosey et al. (2005) have demonstrated that NLP is a structured and systematic means <strong>of</strong> mapping subjective experience and constructed reality <strong>of</strong> people experiencing transformative learning or coaching (Linder-Pelz and Hall, 2007). Despite that NLP has much potential relevance for, and application to, <strong>the</strong> practices <strong>of</strong> management learning, it would need more space to explore fur<strong>the</strong>r (Tosey and Mathison, 2003). This paper argues that <strong>the</strong> VAK representation systems primarily focus on individual internal learning (Yemm, 2006) and thus NLP may be used as a practical approach to develop HC in organisations. The paper looks how <strong>the</strong> NLP approach, particularly <strong>the</strong> three representation systems, may be applied as a set <strong>of</strong> strategies in organisations to assist in developing HC in organisations. In o<strong>the</strong>r words, <strong>the</strong> purpose <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> paper is to identify what NLP is in <strong>the</strong> organisational context, how <strong>the</strong> representation systems might be useful for individual to enhance learning and <strong>the</strong>n develop knowledge in organisations, and to explore <strong>the</strong> application <strong>of</strong> NLP as a conceptual framework to develop HC in organisations. As very little reliable data on <strong>the</strong> subject <strong>of</strong> developing HC through NLP has been made available for <strong>the</strong> current investigation, a critical analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> relevant literature is adopted which can provide a cogent and comprehensive perspective on <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>oretical and practical aspects <strong>of</strong> whe<strong>the</strong>r NLP can help to develop HC in organisations. Bourguignon et al. (2004) argue that a literature-based analysis helps to increase <strong>the</strong> level <strong>of</strong> clarity and precision <strong>of</strong> a concept, which is a necessity if we are to understand <strong>the</strong> constitutive use <strong>of</strong> NLP in developing HC in <strong>the</strong> organisational context. Since <strong>the</strong> findings revealed from <strong>the</strong> analysis are representative for <strong>the</strong> current state and progress <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> field, this study provides insights to human resource strategy scholars and practitioners on <strong>the</strong> appropriateness and usefulness <strong>of</strong> developing HC through NLP in <strong>the</strong> organisational context. This literature-based analysis is <strong>the</strong> first step towards understanding <strong>the</strong> application <strong>of</strong> NLP in enhancing HC in organisations. This is essential because it helps to present a call for fur<strong>the</strong>r conceptualisation and future empirical examination to gain more validity (Serenko et al., 2009). The paper aims to provide a better understanding <strong>of</strong> NLP, and its application on both individuality in learning and organisational learning. Also, it aims to extend <strong>the</strong> academic literature on NLP and dispel some myths about NLP and connotations individuals may already have with <strong>the</strong> approach. After critically reviewing <strong>the</strong> literature, <strong>the</strong> paper argues that since NLP primarily focuses on individual internal learning, it may be used as a conceptual framework to develop and nurture HC in organisations. Examples will be used in <strong>the</strong> paper to illustrate <strong>the</strong> possible benefits <strong>of</strong> utilising NLP in developing knowledge in organisations. Future research direction and limitations will also be discussed. 2. Human capital and neuro-linguistic programming 2.1 Human capital Human capital (HC) subsumes various human resource elements, including competencies, experience and skills, and <strong>the</strong> innovativeness and talents <strong>of</strong> people (Bontis, 2002, Guerrero, 2003, Fletcher et al., 2003). It represents <strong>the</strong> cumulative tacit knowledge that is embedded in <strong>the</strong> minds <strong>of</strong> people in an organisation (Bontis, 1999, Bontis et al., 2002). Thus, even though an individual carries tacit knowledge which may have significant contributions to <strong>the</strong> organisation, it is <strong>of</strong>ten HC (cumulative tacit knowledge along with all o<strong>the</strong>r human resource elements) that creates most value to <strong>the</strong> organisation. Knowledge, particularly tacit knowledge, can only be created by humans but not by organisations and thus HC cannot be owned, but only rented (Kong and Thomson, 2009). Individuals bring in HC when <strong>the</strong>y join an organisation, though <strong>the</strong>ir level <strong>of</strong> HC <strong>the</strong>oretically increases with time in <strong>the</strong> organisation (Grasenick and Low, 2004). A higher level <strong>of</strong> HC within <strong>the</strong> organisation is <strong>of</strong>ten associated with greater productivity and higher incomes or compensation (Wilson and Larson, 2002). On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, a loss <strong>of</strong> organisational memory due to individuals’ departure may be a threat to <strong>the</strong> 320
Eric Kong organisation as individuals take <strong>the</strong>ir talent, skills and tacit knowledge with <strong>the</strong>m when <strong>the</strong>y leave <strong>the</strong> organisation (Kong and Thomson, 2009). Theoretically, new employees, after a vigilant recruitment process, should replace <strong>the</strong> employees who departed from <strong>the</strong> organisation and <strong>the</strong> level <strong>of</strong> HC should remain <strong>the</strong> same. However, a full exploitation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> HC that embodied in new employees may seem to be difficult, if not impossible (Kong and Thomson, 2009). This is because when an organisation acquires human resources in <strong>the</strong> external job market, it must undergo a period <strong>of</strong> dynamic adjustment costs before <strong>the</strong> best uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> human resources can be discovered and tailored to <strong>the</strong> needs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> new environment (Hatch and Dyer, 2004). Besides, new employees’ prior industry experience may also affect <strong>the</strong>ir performance in <strong>the</strong> organisation, preventing <strong>the</strong>m to unlearn and re-learn knowledge in <strong>the</strong> new environment (Hatch and Dyer, 2004). Thus HC is volatile in nature. Human resource managers should not only pay attention on recruitment and selection <strong>of</strong> human resources, but also <strong>the</strong> development and deployment <strong>of</strong> HC as recruitment and selection alone are not sufficient to ensure competitive advantage (Kong and Thomson, 2009). Human resource managers must ensure that <strong>the</strong>y recruit, develop and retain <strong>the</strong> best and brightest employees as a means <strong>of</strong> deploying HC and achieving competitive advantage in <strong>the</strong>ir organisations (Kong, 2008). HC helps organisations to effectively respond to environmental changes by sensing <strong>the</strong> need for changes, developing strategies to meet <strong>the</strong> changes and efficiently implementing <strong>the</strong> strategies for complex and dynamic environments (Kong and Ramia, 2010). This is because HC is <strong>the</strong> collective knowledge and learning capabilities <strong>of</strong> an organisation, which can be used to extract <strong>the</strong> best solutions from <strong>the</strong> knowledge <strong>of</strong> its individuals for value creation (Bontis et al., 2000). Accordingly, HC can be a source <strong>of</strong> organisational innovation and strategic renewal (Kong and Ramia, 2010). HC must be developed strategically if <strong>the</strong> growth and competitiveness <strong>of</strong> a firm is to be sustainable. One way <strong>of</strong> developing HC in organisations may be through neuro-linguistic programming (NLP). 2.2 Neurolinguistic programming (NLP) Neurolinguistic programming (NLP) emerged in <strong>the</strong> 1970s from <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> California, USA. Richard Bandler and John Grinder, <strong>the</strong> original developers <strong>of</strong> NLP, were involved in ma<strong>the</strong>matics and linguistics (Carter, 2001). Much <strong>of</strong> what Bandler and Grinder (1979) identified and developed was based on <strong>the</strong> work <strong>of</strong> well-known linguistics experts and since <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> term ‘neuro-linguistic’ has been widely used (Yemm, 2006). As described by Linder-Pelz and Hall (2007), ‘[t]he ‘neuro’ refers to <strong>the</strong> way humans experience <strong>the</strong> world through <strong>the</strong>ir senses and translate sensory experiences into thought processes, both conscious and unconscious, which in turn activate <strong>the</strong> neurological system; ‘linguistic’ refers to <strong>the</strong> way we use language to make sense <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world, capture and conceptualise experience and <strong>the</strong>n communicate that experience to o<strong>the</strong>rs; and ‘programming’ addresses <strong>the</strong> way people code (mentally represent) <strong>the</strong>ir experience and adopt regular and systematic patterns <strong>of</strong> response’. Thus, <strong>the</strong> title, NLP, broadly denotes <strong>the</strong> view that a person is a whole mind-body system with patterned connections between internal experience (neuro), language (linguistic), and behaviour (programming) (Tosey et al., 2005). NLP began as a means <strong>of</strong> studying how people process information, construct meaning schemas, and perform skills to achieve results (Tosey and Mathison, 2008). Bandler and Grinder (1979) wanted to study people who were excellent, identify <strong>the</strong> specific elements that <strong>the</strong>se people could do to achieve excellence, and <strong>the</strong>n teach or impart <strong>the</strong>se elements to o<strong>the</strong>rs in order to improve <strong>the</strong>ir performance. As described by Dilts (1998, p.30), ‘[t]he objective <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> NLP modelling process is not to end up with <strong>the</strong> one ‘right’ or ‘true’ description <strong>of</strong> a particular person’s thinking process, but ra<strong>the</strong>r to make an instrumental map that allows us to apply <strong>the</strong> strategies that we have modelled in some useful way’. Thus, NLP aims to replica what works and allows o<strong>the</strong>rs to find evidence within its practices <strong>of</strong> an eclectic approach that draws from (among o<strong>the</strong>r things) cognitive-behavioural approaches, gestalt <strong>the</strong>rapy, hypno<strong>the</strong>rapy, family <strong>the</strong>rapy, and brief <strong>the</strong>rapy (Tosey and Mathison, 2008). The principle <strong>of</strong> NLP is to make human capabilities available for o<strong>the</strong>rs to learn (Tosey and Mathison, 2010). In short, NLP is ‘a set <strong>of</strong> guiding principles, attitudes and techniques that enable [individuals] to change behaviour patterns as [<strong>the</strong>y] wish’ (Yemm, 2006, p.13). The NLP approach is interested in how people construct <strong>the</strong>ir experiences through cognitive processes, ra<strong>the</strong>r than in seeking causal explanations in <strong>the</strong> past for why <strong>the</strong>y experience <strong>the</strong> world as <strong>the</strong>y do, or in <strong>the</strong> contents <strong>of</strong> a particular experience (Tosey and Mathison, 2008). Linder-Pelz and 321
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Proceedings <stron
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Contents Paper Title Author(s) Page
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Paper Title Author(s) Page No. Main
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Paper Title Author(s) Page No. Know
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Preface These proceedings represent
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TU Dortmund, Germany, ); Wing Bun L
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William Halal is Prof</stro
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Evgeny Blagov has obtained a specia
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science and mathem
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George Majdalany is a PhD candidate
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Joyce Nesamani Simson is a PhD cand
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Manpower Discipline Based on Knowle
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Peyman Akhavan et al. brains, knowl
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Peyman Akhavan et al. showed that o
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Peyman Akhavan et al. appropriate l
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Peyman Akhavan et al. sources for c
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Attitudes Towards Changes and Organ
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Ruth Alas et al. During the
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Professional inter
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Ruth Alas et al. Table 4: Correlati
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Research was supported by ETF Grant
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Rivadávia Correa Drummond de Alvar
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5. Conclusions Rivadávia Correa Dr
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Toward a Meta-Synthe</stron
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Xiaomi An et al 2.3 Reasons for dev
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Xiaomi An et al PTC works closely w
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Xiaomi An et al The first is an adm
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Xiaomi An et al policy reflections
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Figure 1: Transmission gear Marko A
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Marko Anzelak et al. knowledge basi
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Marko Anzelak et al. 72% recognise
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Marko Anzelak et al. virtually all
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Gabriel Prananingrum Aryanindita an
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Rita Babiliūtė and Kęstutis Kri
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Knowledge Management, Cultural Know
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Leonard Barnett and Edward Carter 2
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Leonard Barnett and Edward Carter p
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Leonard Barnett and Edward Carter p
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Leonard Barnett and Edward Carter d
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Impact of Knowledg
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Bob Barrett shorter product life-cy
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Bob Barrett 6. Concept of</
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Bob Barrett Brown, J.S. and Duguid
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Aurilla Aurelie Bechina and Eli Hus
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Lorne Booker et al. Knowledge is us
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Figure 1: Business Valuation Knowle
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3.4 Practitioner knowledge market L
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4. Implications Lorne Booker et al.
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Strategic Thinking Dimensions in Em
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Constantin Bratianu et al. shows <s
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Constantin Bratianu et al. Academy
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Constantin Bratianu et al. cases wi
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Constantin Bratianu et al. Pinker,
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Delio Ignacio Castañeda and Sandra
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Quality in Teacher Education: A Sys
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Rajendra Chetty The mechanism <stro
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Academic leadership Rajendra Chetty
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Rajendra Chetty There must be a re-
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Developing Personal Knowledge Manag
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Thirathep Chonmait
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Thirathep Chonmait
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The Relationship Between Knowledge
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Samuel Kai Wah Chu et al. A knowled
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Samuel Kai Wah Chu et al. negative
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Samuel Kai Wah Chu et al. Questionn
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Samuel Kai Wah Chu et al. few done
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Value Creation Through Collaborativ
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Ridha Derrouiche et al. level for e
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Ridha Derrouiche et al. best, <stro
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Ridha Derrouiche et al. experience
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Ridha Derrouiche et al. Of course,
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Organizational Learning and Transfo
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Irra Chrisyanti Dewi was carried ou
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Irra Chrisyanti Dewi Table 2: Valid
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Irra Chrisyanti Dewi Library is exp
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Knowledge Acquisition and Sharing:
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Ikechukwu Diugwu articulated and st
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Ikechukwu Diugwu establishing setti
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Ikechukwu Diugwu Mentzer, J. T., Mi
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Eva Eckenhofer cou
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Eva Eckenhofer The
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Eva Eckenhofer The
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Eva Eckenhofer Bur
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1.2 Intellectual capital and innova
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3.2.2 Reliability Irene Y.H. Fan an
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Figure 4: latent variable coefficie
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Irene Y.H. Fan and Rongbin W.B. Lee
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Irene Y.H. Fan and Rongbin W.B. Lee
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2.1 Appropriation Ronny Gey From a
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Ronny Gey Table 1: Characterization
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Ronny Gey The developers feel that
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Ronny Gey A first limitation we wer
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Kenneth Grant part of</stro
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Kenneth Grant The diffusion was stu
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Kenneth Grant A detailed computer-s
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Kenneth Grant did not come to <stro
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Kenneth Grant of m
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Michel Grundstein although hundred
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Michel Grundstein Figure 1: DITEK p
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Michel Grundstein 4.1.1 Knowledge i
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Michel Grundstein share. However <s
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6. Conclusions and perspectives Mic
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Intellectual Property Valuation Dec
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Hezlin Harris et al. (Burrone and S
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Hezlin Harris et al. The need for s
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Acknowledgements Hezlin Harris et a
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Managing an Assessment Process <str
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Table 1: List of N
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Shaheed Hartley Table 3: OEQ respon
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Shaheed Hartley It is very difficul
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A Community Framework for Knowledge
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Igor Hawryszkiewycz between communi
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Figure 4: Modeling knowledge subsys
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Igor Hawryszkiewycz Prahalad, C.K.,
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Eli Hustad and Aurilla Aurelie Bech
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Does Knowledge Stickiness Affect a
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Nurul Indarti knowledge (Nelson and
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3. Research methods 3.1 Research in
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Coded knowledge Nurul Indarti The f
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Nurul Indarti Arrow, K. J. (1969).
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Organizational Learning in Pr<stron
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Brigita Janiunaite et al. learn and
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Brigita Janiunaite et al. given dif
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Brigita Janiunaite et al. empowered
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Brigita Janiunaite et al. A statist
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Brigita Janiunaite et al. learning
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Balancing the Ince
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Giedrius Jucevičius safeguard and
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Page 315 and 316: Annukka Jyrämä et al. knowledge c
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Page 325 and 326: Harri Ketamo conceptual structure a
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Helen Mitchell and Dennis Viehland
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Helen Mitchell and Dennis Viehland
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Figure 1: KMS Framework for collabo
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Mohd Zali Mohd Nor et al. Ano<stron
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Mohd Zali Mohd Nor et al. Table 4:
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Mohd Zali Mohd Nor et al. KQ8 provi
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Maria Cristina Morariu economy and
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Table 1: Literature review summary
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Maria Cristina Morariu ATO = Turnov
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4.2 Correlation analysis Maria Cris
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4.3 Regression analysis Maria Crist
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Table 13: Regression analysis_M6 Mo
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The Arrival of <st
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Bertrand Pauget and Ahmed Dammak Mo
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Bertrand Pauget and Ahmed Dammak no
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Bertrand Pauget and Ahmed Dammak th
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Bertrand Pauget and Ahmed Dammak Sa
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Wannapa Pipattanawong et al. cannot
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Wannapa Pipattanawong et al. 3.2 Do
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Wannapa Pipattanawong et al. Moreov
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The Dark Side of S
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Siwarit Pongsakornrungsilp vans, ro
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Siwarit Pongsakornrungsilp Kreng Ja
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Siwarit Pongsakornrungsilp Lave, J.
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