Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Intellectual ...

Leonard Barnett and Edward Carter
perceive a message embedded in context and may disregard written information. Knowledge is more
likely to be understood and shared by communitarians when accompanied by a human face and
voice. e.g. obtaining information may be unsuccessful if relying on email or forms. A personal contact
is <strong>of</strong>ten required.
5.3 In-groups and out-groups
Communitarians are interdependent on o<strong>the</strong>r group members and Thais are astute relationship
managers, adroitly manipulating in- and out-group distinctions. Consequently, while knowledge is
readily developed, learnt and shared between in-group members, it may not reach employees from
ano<strong>the</strong>r section. This exclusion is not malevolent but simply reflects in-group loyalty and reluctance to
‘lose’ group property. Similarly, out-group members may intentionally exclude <strong>the</strong>mselves from
participating in certain KM activities, if <strong>the</strong>y perceive <strong>the</strong>mselves as not belonging (Ardichvili et al
2006).
This research found that Western customers received fuller knowledge sharing than Indians and
Arabs. Ethnocentrism, when combined with ascribed status and particularism, throws up formidable
knowledge barriers for certain out-groups.
5.4 Particularism
Participants stressed <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> relationships in management. Thais, being strongly
particularist do business through informal and personal relationship-based communication (Holmes
and Tangtongtavy 1997). Thai companies and sub-sections run on a family based model reflecting
both communitarian and particularist values. Consequently, KM systems, which are impersonal,
universalist and reliant on written rules, will be less successful than those that incorporate informal
relationship management.
5.5 High and low context
Managers reported considerable difficulty with <strong>the</strong> issue <strong>of</strong> high and low context communication.
Words, emails and online verbal KM applications are more valued by low than high context staff.
Interculturally competent KM needs to account for this cultural variation in rolling out KM systems.
5.6 Diversity and face
In a diverse, as opposed to specific, culture, <strong>the</strong> perception <strong>of</strong> work performance and personal regard
is integral to self concept and self esteem. Pr<strong>of</strong>essional praise or criticism is taken personally and
affects face (Miller 2005). Face is crucial in decisions made about communication, learning and
knowledge sharing. For example, willingness to ask questions varies greatly across cultures (Wenger
et al. 2002). Those from specific cultures perceive asking questions as valid inquiry and <strong>of</strong>ten faceenhancing
behavior. Diverse culture individuals avoid doing so, especially in public, as it is not
modest (Kurman 2003) and, if it betrays ignorance or embarrasses, is a face-losing behavior. Asking
questions may distinguish one from <strong>the</strong> group and so break communitarian principles or it might
<strong>of</strong>fend against kreng jai (no precise English equivalent – approx. consideration, self effacement).
Similarly, relaying negative and critical information is discouraged (‘shoot <strong>the</strong> messenger’) if it reflects
badly on somebody or might provoke prohibited emotional display. Knowledge relating to
performance, particularly appraisal or mistakes, becomes very delicate when face is so crucial.
Criticism is avoided and incompetence may be covered up or ignored.
5.7 Uncertainty avoidance and external locus <strong>of</strong> control
Managers expressed frustration with staff’s lack <strong>of</strong> innovation, creativity, proactivity and initiative,
despite innumerable training courses, and <strong>the</strong>ir rigid adherence to procedures and unwillingness to
accept promotion to more accountable positions. Uncertainty avoidance, preferring external control
and reluctance to assume internal control provide significant obstacles to innovation and creativity in
KM.
6. Conclusion and areas for future research
This research demonstrates that one size does not fit all and that considerable intercultural
competence is required <strong>of</strong> KM practitioners. KM, particularly knowledge sharing, transfer,
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