ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES in rocky mountain coniferous ...

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In this paper I examine the effects of harvesting and residue treatments on the microenvironment. A close consideration of the components of an environment and certain biophysical principles is necessary to an understanding of the natural com- plexity of causal relationships. Data resulting from field studies conducted by this program helps to clarify by quantifying relationships. The work of other researchers on microenvi ronmental responses, manipulation, and/or predictive models complements my intent to review possibilites and stimulate a new approach in management. ENVIRONMENTAL-PHYSIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS We reap the benefits of spectacular developments in science and technology every day. Since Geiger's book, The Climate Near the Ground, appeared in 1950, efforts to apply the principles of natural science and quantative physics to biologic systems have magnified. Papers and books discuss the principles of environmental physics with reference to plants (Wijk 1963; Gates 1962; Monteith 1973; f4unn 1966; Rose 1966; Rosenburg 1974; Lowry 1969; Campbell 1977). As a result the emphasis and approach concerning the importance of environment to forest growth and uses has changed. Whi 1 e Toumey and Korstian (1 947) recognized the great importance of environment, their emphasis was necessarily on qua1 itative determinations of environment-plant responses. This established the importance of environment, but a predictive understanding based on quantitative factors was not available. We know that shade or drought or genetic factors affect growth, but this does not explain the process. Environmental processes affect plant processes on1 by changing the internal processes and conditions (Kramer and Kozlowski l96OeIn essence, the key to understanding how plants respond to environmental variables depends on the interaction with physiological processes of the plant. If we are to manage for a certain species or community, we must know its requirements for survival, optimal growth, and completion of its life cycle. Since the environment and physiological processes of organisms are related, how do we define environment? In the broadest sense the environment 5s the total surroundings of an organism (Allee and Park 1939), including the direct and indirec t effects of the surroundings. Spomer (l973), defines the factors that directly a ffect organisms as the operational environment. This operational environment imp1 ies factors that interact between an organism's surroundi~gs and the internal condit ions of the organism. The interaction leads to an internal change in the organism in response to its environment. The operational environment is characterized by factors significant to an organism's internal physiology such as: heat, 1 ight, moisture, nutrients, gases, and mechanical energy. Indirect factors - pH, aspect, elevation, temperature, soil texture - describe the potential for exchange. These are important only as they distinguish between causal factors and those that are correlated. Knowledge of the exchange 1 eve1 s of causal factors can establ i sh the potential physiological activity of an organism. With heat, for example, the potential activity depends on the temperature difference between the organism and its imnediate surroundings. The potential for change is described by entropy. Temperature is easily measured, but entropy is not measurable, However, the overall exchange can be closely approximated using resistance to flow.
I Where: Cs is the concentration at the surface; C, is the concentration in the atmosphere and r' is the resistance to flow Table 1 lists measurable indirect factors for each of the operational factors. Table 1 .-- Some operational factors, or those capable of being exchanqed, and measurable parameters for each. Operational factors Heat Moisture Measurable parameters Soil temperature Air temperature Radiation Water potential Soil moisture Precipitation Evapotranspiration Snow accumulation Snow me1 t Nutrients Soil nutrients Gases Light Mechanical energy Oxygen Carbon dioxide Qua1 ity Radiation Wind Soil creep Frost heaving It is important that we base our studies on the operational factors so that models and predictive relationships will be more widely appl icable (Berg1 und 1974). Further, this permits us to measure only what is needed to answer our specific questions which Federer (1974) calls the rifle approach. This is opposed to the shotgun approach which measures as many things as possible hoping something will be useful . Model s constructed based on these concepts wi 11 have more uni versa1 appl i - cabil ity.
Page 1 and 2: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF TIMBE
Page 3 and 4: USDA Forest Service General Technic
Page 5 and 6: REW 'ORD One of the pressing proble
Page 7 and 8: BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS Biological
Page 9 and 10: By the mid-1 960's the apparently u
Page 11 and 12: Scientist, audience: "The Three-Mil
Page 13 and 14: I believe that the future of forest
Page 15 and 16: enewable resource that can be proce
Page 17 and 18: productive capacity. Recent legisla
Page 19 and 20: Much of the research investigating
Page 21 and 22: Six sale area blocks were logged (f
Page 23 and 24: Understory Removal Figure 4.--Eccpe
Page 25 and 26: Gentle slopes and easy access to cu
Page 27 and 28: Each of the four cutting units was
Page 29 and 30: A concerted effort was made to coor
Page 31 and 32: oriented toward the basic response
Page 33 and 34: WOODY MATERIAL IN NORTHERN ROCKY MO
Page 35 and 36: STANDING, 3 " 1 DIA. ? (GREEN & DEA
Page 37 and 38: I 11 Table 1,--Volume of wood by co
Page 39 and 40: Small material under 3 inch (7.6 cm
Page 41 and 42: Depending on the cutting and treatm
Page 43: MICROENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE TO HARV
Page 47 and 48: Figure I.-- Residue treatments used
Page 49 and 50: HARVESTING AND RESIDUE INFLUENCES R
Page 51 and 52: I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 JAN. FEB. M
Page 53 and 54: Sensible heat flux, evaporative flu
Page 55 and 56: SOLO, 1977- 78 UNCUT CUT Mean max.
Page 57 and 58: It is logical that if surface tempe
Page 59 and 60: 0 - 5 - 10 - 15 20 - Chips - Clrare
Page 61 and 62: Brown, crumbly, decayed material (B
Page 63 and 64: At Coram, steep harvested slopes ha
Page 65 and 66: surface of unburned and hard-burned
Page 67 and 68: canopy. Light then indirectly cause
Page 69 and 70: Moisture Moisture is frequently ide
Page 71 and 72: Net radiation--the measure of the a
Page 73 and 74: Table 5.--Possible solutions for po
Page 75 and 76: Cochran, P. H. 1969. Thermal proper
Page 77 and 78: Lommen, P. W., Cr, R. Schwintzer, C
Page 79 and 80: Stark, Nel 1 ie. 1980. The impacts
Page 81 and 82: and water use during the growing se
Page 83 and 84: The main study site (fig. 1) occupi
Page 85 and 86: The four residues util i zation tre
Page 87 and 88: RAIN The major precipitation instru
Page 89 and 90: Figure 5.--SG,L. wuwr zc)as measure
Page 91 and 92: S treamf 1 ow A &foot H-flume was i
Page 93 and 94: Figure 7.--Snow water equivalent on
Page 95 and 96:
Soi 1 Water Water present in the so
Page 97 and 98:
SILVICULTURE TREATMENTS Si 1 vicul
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As indicated in figure 11 and appen
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The most consistent difference in w
Page 103 and 104:
MEAN CONSUMPTIVE USE -ALL YEARS (19
Page 105 and 106:
Lowest daily water use occurred at
Page 107 and 108:
6. Water use began in Apri 1 , acce
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Klages, M. G., R. C. McConnell , an
Page 111 and 112:
APPENDICES Appendix A.--Hydrograph
Page 113 and 114:
Appendix C.--Rainfall reaching the
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Appendix E.--Water use during the g
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One of the most efficient methods o
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Control Chipped Picked up Broadcast
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Control Chapped Picked up Broadcast
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Control Chipped Picked up Broadcast
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' Control Chipped and Picked up and
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One of the least detrimental residu
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INTRODUCTION In the early days, the
Page 131 and 132:
%pire 1.--Measured concentrations (
Page 133 and 134:
The silvicul tural treatments appli
Page 135 and 136:
I 2 Table 2. --Percent of total qua
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Unmerchantable TOP Shrubs Lower Cro
Page 139 and 140:
create a nitrogen deficiency during
Page 141 and 142:
Steele, R. W. 1975. Understory burn
Page 143 and 144:
National Forest. This paper summari
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UNIT 2 CONVENT IONALLY Du Bois, Wyo
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Trees Figures 3 and 4 show the oven
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Weights of typical trees on these t
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pi1 ed-burned treatments were lowes
Page 153 and 154:
MINERAL SOIL Total nutrient content
Page 155 and 156:
Tab1 e 5. --Concentrations of avai
Page 157 and 158:
Table 6. --Average concentrations o
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sites. Burning then transformed the
Page 161 and 162:
RESIDUE DECAY PROCESSES AND ASSOCIA
Page 163 and 164:
The hardwood or angiospermous timbe
Page 165 and 166:
Woody Substrates Gyrnnospermsr (Int
Page 167 and 168:
Natural inoculation of residues may
Page 169 and 170:
On the Coram site, brown-rot fungi
Page 171 and 172:
Table 2.--Probability (P) of encoun
Page 173 and 174:
Recognizable brown-cubical decayed
Page 175 and 176:
I Newly formed, small-dimension res
Page 177 and 178:
Highley, T. L. 1976. Hemicellulases
Page 179 and 180:
MICROBIAL PROCESSES ASSOCIATED WITH
Page 181 and 182:
Nonsymbiotic N Fixation Free-1 ivin
Page 183 and 184:
In a previous paper (Jurgensen and
Page 185 and 186:
Symbiotic N Fixation The establishm
Page 187 and 188:
carbon and NHq (Ahlgren, 1974). Mic
Page 189 and 190:
Prescribed f~re CLEARCUT - BURN CLE
Page 191 and 192:
Hungerford, R.9. 1980. Microenvi ro
Page 193 and 194:
ECOLOGY OF ECTOMYCORRHIZAE IN NORTH
Page 195 and 196:
Coram - Subalpine fir Site (ABLAICL
Page 197 and 198:
Figure 2.-- ReZative yield capabiZi
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Figure 5. -- Percentage of soCZ-woo
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Figure 9,-- Percentage of toid ectm
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Effect of Soil Components on Ectomy
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Effect of Organic Matter Quantity o
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PARTIAL CUT Effect of Harvesting on
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Figure 20. -- Average nwnbers of ac
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Gijbl , F. 1967. Mykorrhizauntersuc
Page 213 and 214:
BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS Initial cha
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FOREST SOIL BIOLOGY The act of incr
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the soil will retain its ability to
Page 219 and 220:
Since the best quantity of organic
Page 221 and 222:
We can also visualize situations on
Page 223 and 224:
Harvey, A. E., M. F. Jurgensen, and
Page 225 and 226:
INTRODUCTION Vegetation integrates
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Because of cool, wet weather in 197
Page 229 and 230:
We determined volume and cover usin
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The stems were divided at 4 mm (0.1
Page 233 and 234:
RESIDUES TREATMENT EFFECTS As descr
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Overall shrub recovery rates do not
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Rose behaved similar to ninebark (f
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Meanwhile, small shrub cover change
Page 241 and 242:
Biomass Regression analyses relatin
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SILVICULTURE TREATMENT EFFECTS Harv
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RESIDUES TREATMENT EFFECTS Major sh
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Lesser vegetation--herbs and small
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Leaf and stem components of the shr
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APPENDIX I Trees and shrubs found o
Page 253 and 254:
INTRODUCTION Many western larch (La
Page 255 and 256:
Figure 2. --Lower cutting blocks on
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each permanent point) of the clearc
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Figure 3.--Marking gemination and c
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were not significant. These treatme
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Tab1 e 2. --Fi 11 ed conifer seed (
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Dispersal of sound seed on the uppe
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Table $.--Number of 3- and 5-year-o
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Table 6. --Germination of conifers
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Survival, growth and form will be m
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Es tab1 ishment and Initial Develop
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to the amount of residue originally
Page 277 and 278:
As the following tabulation shows,
Page 279 and 280:
Soot-Seeded Broadcast burning, and
Page 281 and 282:
Natural Regeneration Natural regene
Page 283 and 284:
.4s shown in fig. 5, vegetation was
Page 285 and 286:
Interestingly, the high phenol leve
Page 287 and 288:
DeByle, Norbert V. 1980. Harvesting
Page 289 and 290:
EFFECT OF SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES,
Page 291 and 292:
mountain pine beetle. These two for
Page 293 and 294:
GROUP SELECTION 22 CONTROL SHELTERW
Page 295 and 296:
FIELD AND LABORATORY PROCEDURES To
Page 297 and 298:
I Many of the groups were trapped v
Page 299 and 300:
shelterwood with residues, were sig
Page 301 and 302:
HARVESTING AND RESIDUE MANAGEMENT T
Page 303 and 304:
Page 305 and 306:
Page 307 and 308:
indicate a treatment effect of burn
Page 309 and 310:
Undisturbed Forest .". . . . Clearc
Page 311 and 312:
1 equally abundant in all treatment
Page 313 and 314:
I not seem to be directly caused by
Page 315 and 316:
the undisturbed forests. Some resea
Page 317 and 318:
Huhta, V., E. Karppinen, M. Nurmine
Page 319 and 320:
POPULATIONS OF SOME FOREST LITTER,
Page 321 and 322:
STUDY DESIGN The study area is loca
Page 323 and 324:
GROUP SELECTION 22 CONTROL '... . .
Page 325 and 326:
Sampling in 1977 was restricted to
Page 327 and 328:
Table 1 .--Mean total mesofauna pop
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0 - (JUNE) from S helterwood (AUGUS
Page 331 and 332:
SHELTERWOOD--RESIDUE BURNED The eff
Page 333 and 334:
In the first season or two followin
Page 335 and 336:
LITERATURE CITED Ahlgren, I. F. 197
Page 337 and 338:
A REVIEW OF SOME INTERACTIONS BETWE
Page 339 and 340:
and Keen 1960; Felix and others 197
Page 341 and 342:
Pissodes strobi Peck, In a thinned
Page 343 and 344:
foresters feel as though "It's 1 i
Page 345 and 346:
The large aerial spray programs aga
Page 347 and 348:
Weakened living trees, or trees kil
Page 349 and 350:
Most western pine beetle attacks in
Page 351 and 352:
The galleries, or mines, of wood bo
Page 353 and 354:
Other wood borers. --Several specie
Page 355 and 356:
Deterioration of spruce (Picea a. )
Page 357 and 358:
The eruption of Mount Saint Helens
Page 359 and 360:
Bark and engraver beetles infesting
Page 361 and 362:
In the northern Rockies, one conife
Page 363 and 364:
management, and not the beetle." If
Page 365 and 366:
investigation regardin controlled b
Page 367 and 368:
WOOD BORERS Mitchell and Martin (In
Page 369 and 370:
Still, by 1938, there was a feeling
Page 371 and 372:
I Different i nvesti gators have us
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if the forest floor is completely c
Page 375 and 376:
Carabids as biological control agen
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een placed for protection from rode
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with every tree in the stand contin
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Spiders as predators.--Studies have
Page 383 and 384:
At least two studies have been made
Page 385 and 386:
In the long-leaf pine forests in th
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RESIDUES, FIRES, INSECTS, AND FORES
Page 389 and 390:
In the spruce-fir stands infested w
Page 391 and 392:
Recently, Senator John Me1 cher (Mo
Page 393 and 394:
plans. Since fire, too, is a decomp
Page 395 and 396:
CHANGING FOREST INSECT PROBLEMS Ins
Page 397 and 398:
Basham, J. T. 1957. The deteriorati
Page 399 and 400:
Cole, D. M. 1978. Feasibility of si
Page 401 and 402:
Fellin, D. G. and P. C. Johnson. 19
Page 403 and 404:
Graham, S. A. 1922. Some entomoloqi
Page 405 and 406:
Huhta, V., M. Nurminen and A. Valpa
Page 407 and 408:
Lawrence, W. H. and 3. H. Rediske.
Page 409 and 410:
Miller, J. M. and J. E. Patterson.
Page 411 and 412:
Rice, L * A. 1932. The effect of fi
Page 413 and 414:
Stoddard, H. L. Sr. 1963. Bird habi
Page 415 and 416:
Weaver, Harol d. 1951. Fire as an e
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RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS Th
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INFLUENCE OF HARVESTING AND RESIDUE
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F
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NEAR COMPLETE Figure 2.--Byrmnts f
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Figure 3.-- Bymrmrs fireZine intens
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F5qure 4. --Byramrs fireZ-Cne inten
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1. Nomographs of Rate of Spread, Fi
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3. Consider other fire-related fact
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Puckett, John V., Cameron M. Johnst
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Important and rapid progress has be
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tlarvested Areas What happened when
Page 439 and 440:
UNCUT SHELTERWOOD Protect understor
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Initially the areas are rated low.
Page 443 and 444:
The primary reason for this discrep
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f n contrast to displaced bears, so
Page 447 and 448:
Quantitative data on grizzly behavi
Page 449 and 450:
Asherin, Duane A. 1976. Changes in
Page 451 and 452:
Leege, Thomas A. 1969. Burning sera
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Reynolds, Hudson G. 1969. Aspen gro
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INFLUENCES OF HARVESTING AND RESIDU
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CLEARCUT LOGGING & COMPLETE BURN DE
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C LEARCUT LOGGING & BROADCAST BURN
Page 461 and 462:
EFFECTS OF SMALL MAMMALS ON FOREST
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I I Habitat Manipulation Small mamm
Page 465 and 466:
Fala, Robert A. 1975. Effects of pr
Page 467 and 468:
Tevis, Lloyd Jr. l956b. Pocket goph
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forests are cavity nesters. They ar
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GROUP SELECTION: A1 1 merchantab le
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TABLE 3. Pre- and post-logging volu
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Censuses Censuses for all species (
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Fbgure 6.-- Lightn
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Pileated Woodpeckers on the CEF nes
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TABLE 7. Percent of sampling time t
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I Observed woodpecker feeding Down,
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Table 9 shows feeding time in the l
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L c - 10- ul 2 0 8- 6 - 4 2 - - 0 .
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Figure 15. -- A Hairy Woodpecker ne
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~
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oth offered advice on study site se
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Hairy Woodpecker Downy Woodpecker B
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THE SITUATION Forest land managers
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In the descriptive approach, howeve
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ORGANIZING INFORMATION One differen
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As has already been stated, the for
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Figure 7.--Matrix of interactions b
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understory biomass density, X2 repr
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or, by rearrangement, AX. I afi Ax,
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DISCUSSION It is important to note
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LITERATURE CITED Billings, W. D. 19
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Richard T. Wick Burlington Northern
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themselves, the traditional industr
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highways. Of course, all roads are
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Darrel L. Kenops District Ranger US
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In the future we will see our const
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Lyon, L. Jack, Project Leader, Ecol
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The Intermountain Station, headquar
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