ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES in rocky mountain coniferous ...

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frosts apparently caused considerable mortality to planted stock and natural regeneration at the Wyoming site, and the potential exists at Lubrecht and in certain localities at Coram. Temperature influences moisture balances in several ways. Surface temperatures infl uence ai r temperature gradients, and these i nfl uence vapor pressure gradients. As indicated earlier, the vapor pressure gradients between the atmosphere and leaf affect transpiration rates and consequently the internal water status of plants. As previously mentioned, cooler soi 1 temperatures increase the viscosity of water, thereby, increasing the resistance to flow in the roots, which also affects the internal water status of plants. Temperatures, therefore, are influential in control- 1 ing water stress under some circumstances. Temperature regimes also influence microorganisms in the soil and elsewhere. Mycorrhizal activity, which enhances water and nutrient uptake, is temperature related. As Harvey (1980) mentions, sites of mycorrhizal activity shift during the year as a result of temperature and moisture factors. Jurgensen (1980) and Stark (1980) discuss the relationship between temperature and nutrient cycling and nitrogen production. Fungal activity, important in decomposing residue material, also is temperature and moisture dependent. Cool temperatures sugpress activity and high temperatures are lethal to it. Residue temperatures of 60 C or less are lethal to some fungi (table 7) and stop activity by other species. High heat loads also evaporate moisture and create moisture streses, although fungi can survive and grow under more severe moisture stresses than most plants. Vegetative growth and spore germination are critical to the life cycle of fungi active in decay (Larsen 1980). Manipulating residue temperature and moisture regimes could increase decay rates. Fungi that cause disease also are temperature and moisture sensitive. Harvesting activities that alter these factors on various microsites are likely to affect diseases such as root rots and possibly some canker and foliage diseases. Tab1 e 7. --Lethal temperatures for mycel ia of several species of wood inhabiting fungi. Species Temperature Armillariq mellea 65'~ Fomes appl anatus 65'~ Lentinus lepideus (moist) (dry Merul i us 1 acrymans 50-55'~ Fomes pini 65-75'~
Moisture Moisture is frequently identified as a major factor limiting the growth and development of forest vegetation. Stem elongation and dry weight production can be decreased at water potentials of -0.5 bar. And the growth rate of seed1 ings is often substantially decreased at soil water potentials of -2 to -4 bars. It is not uncommon to reach these levels in the upper layers of soil. Commonly reached lethal levels can explain mortal ity of seed1 ings and sometimes mature plants. Large conifers have been observed to split open as a result of drought (Hungerford 1973). Many good articles discussing water deficits and plant growth are available (Kozlowski 1968a, 1968b, 1972, 1976, 1978; Slatyer 1967). Newmann (1980) and Packer (1980) discuss the specific site effects of water deficits. Gases Carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis and to produce dry matter. Although we know its importance in maintaining forest vegetation, we know very little about how COP 1 imits vegetation in forested systems. We also know very 1 ittle about how forest activities such as timber harvesting influence levels of carbon dioxide. It generally is assumed that the levels of carbon dioxide are adequate, and we know that global suppl ies of carbon dioxide are increasing (Machta 1972). Oxygen concentrations affect the respirqtion rates of organisms. Probably the most significant alteration of oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in forests can occur in soils. Various activities such as scarifying and skidding can either loosen the soil or compact it, thus altering gaseous exchange with the environment, Corn action reduces the exchange, which causes an accumulation of carbon dioxide and depe ! etion of oxygen. The result is a decrease in microbial activity and possibly root growth (Boll en 1974). Reduction in microbial activity can adversely affect the nutrient capital of the site. Residues or residue treatments that impede aeration or cause surface compaction will a1 ter biological activity. A detailed discussion of such relationships is beyond the scope of this paper. Bolin (1970) discusses the carbon cycle and vegetative re1 ationships; Harvey (1 980) and Larsen (1 980) discuss microbiql re1 ationships; and Jurgensen (1 980) discusses nitrogen re1 ati\onships. Wind Wind speed and direction affect biological systems in many ways, Since some species are more susceptible to windthrow because of rooting habits, harvesting prescrtptions must take local situations into account. If one relies on natural regeneration for restocking, wind becomes an important factor in determining the proper size and method of cutting. Since species differences exist, wind cqn hqve differential effects. Wind energy, particularly at high elevations and near coastal areas is also a factor in distributing species and damaging vegetation. Wind-carried particles of sand, etc., kill seedlings, Salt spray from ocean winds also causes damage. Constant strong winds, such as at high elevations, cause deformities.
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF TIMBE
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USDA Forest Service General Technic
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REW 'ORD One of the pressing proble
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BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS Biological
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By the mid-1 960's the apparently u
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Scientist, audience: "The Three-Mil
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I believe that the future of forest
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enewable resource that can be proce
Page 17 and 18: productive capacity. Recent legisla
Page 19 and 20: Much of the research investigating
Page 21 and 22: Six sale area blocks were logged (f
Page 23 and 24: Understory Removal Figure 4.--Eccpe
Page 25 and 26: Gentle slopes and easy access to cu
Page 27 and 28: Each of the four cutting units was
Page 29 and 30: A concerted effort was made to coor
Page 31 and 32: oriented toward the basic response
Page 33 and 34: WOODY MATERIAL IN NORTHERN ROCKY MO
Page 35 and 36: STANDING, 3 " 1 DIA. ? (GREEN & DEA
Page 37 and 38: I 11 Table 1,--Volume of wood by co
Page 39 and 40: Small material under 3 inch (7.6 cm
Page 41 and 42: Depending on the cutting and treatm
Page 43 and 44: MICROENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE TO HARV
Page 45 and 46: I Where: Cs is the concentration at
Page 47 and 48: Figure I.-- Residue treatments used
Page 49 and 50: HARVESTING AND RESIDUE INFLUENCES R
Page 51 and 52: I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 JAN. FEB. M
Page 53 and 54: Sensible heat flux, evaporative flu
Page 55 and 56: SOLO, 1977- 78 UNCUT CUT Mean max.
Page 57 and 58: It is logical that if surface tempe
Page 59 and 60: 0 - 5 - 10 - 15 20 - Chips - Clrare
Page 61 and 62: Brown, crumbly, decayed material (B
Page 63 and 64: At Coram, steep harvested slopes ha
Page 65 and 66: surface of unburned and hard-burned
Page 67: canopy. Light then indirectly cause
Page 71 and 72: Net radiation--the measure of the a
Page 73 and 74: Table 5.--Possible solutions for po
Page 75 and 76: Cochran, P. H. 1969. Thermal proper
Page 77 and 78: Lommen, P. W., Cr, R. Schwintzer, C
Page 79 and 80: Stark, Nel 1 ie. 1980. The impacts
Page 81 and 82: and water use during the growing se
Page 83 and 84: The main study site (fig. 1) occupi
Page 85 and 86: The four residues util i zation tre
Page 87 and 88: RAIN The major precipitation instru
Page 89 and 90: Figure 5.--SG,L. wuwr zc)as measure
Page 91 and 92: S treamf 1 ow A &foot H-flume was i
Page 93 and 94: Figure 7.--Snow water equivalent on
Page 95 and 96: Soi 1 Water Water present in the so
Page 97 and 98: SILVICULTURE TREATMENTS Si 1 vicul
Page 99 and 100: As indicated in figure 11 and appen
Page 101 and 102: The most consistent difference in w
Page 103 and 104: MEAN CONSUMPTIVE USE -ALL YEARS (19
Page 105 and 106: Lowest daily water use occurred at
Page 107 and 108: 6. Water use began in Apri 1 , acce
Page 109 and 110: Klages, M. G., R. C. McConnell , an
Page 111 and 112: APPENDICES Appendix A.--Hydrograph
Page 113 and 114: Appendix C.--Rainfall reaching the
Page 115 and 116: Appendix E.--Water use during the g
Page 117 and 118: One of the most efficient methods o
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Control Chipped Picked up Broadcast
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Control Chapped Picked up Broadcast
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Control Chipped Picked up Broadcast
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' Control Chipped and Picked up and
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One of the least detrimental residu
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INTRODUCTION In the early days, the
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%pire 1.--Measured concentrations (
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The silvicul tural treatments appli
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I 2 Table 2. --Percent of total qua
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Unmerchantable TOP Shrubs Lower Cro
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create a nitrogen deficiency during
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Steele, R. W. 1975. Understory burn
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National Forest. This paper summari
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UNIT 2 CONVENT IONALLY Du Bois, Wyo
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Trees Figures 3 and 4 show the oven
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Weights of typical trees on these t
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pi1 ed-burned treatments were lowes
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MINERAL SOIL Total nutrient content
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Tab1 e 5. --Concentrations of avai
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Table 6. --Average concentrations o
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sites. Burning then transformed the
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RESIDUE DECAY PROCESSES AND ASSOCIA
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The hardwood or angiospermous timbe
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Woody Substrates Gyrnnospermsr (Int
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Natural inoculation of residues may
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On the Coram site, brown-rot fungi
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Table 2.--Probability (P) of encoun
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Recognizable brown-cubical decayed
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I Newly formed, small-dimension res
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Highley, T. L. 1976. Hemicellulases
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MICROBIAL PROCESSES ASSOCIATED WITH
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Nonsymbiotic N Fixation Free-1 ivin
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In a previous paper (Jurgensen and
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Symbiotic N Fixation The establishm
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carbon and NHq (Ahlgren, 1974). Mic
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Prescribed f~re CLEARCUT - BURN CLE
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Hungerford, R.9. 1980. Microenvi ro
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ECOLOGY OF ECTOMYCORRHIZAE IN NORTH
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Coram - Subalpine fir Site (ABLAICL
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Figure 2.-- ReZative yield capabiZi
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Figure 5. -- Percentage of soCZ-woo
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Figure 9,-- Percentage of toid ectm
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Effect of Soil Components on Ectomy
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Effect of Organic Matter Quantity o
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PARTIAL CUT Effect of Harvesting on
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Figure 20. -- Average nwnbers of ac
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Gijbl , F. 1967. Mykorrhizauntersuc
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BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS Initial cha
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FOREST SOIL BIOLOGY The act of incr
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the soil will retain its ability to
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Since the best quantity of organic
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We can also visualize situations on
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Harvey, A. E., M. F. Jurgensen, and
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INTRODUCTION Vegetation integrates
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Because of cool, wet weather in 197
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We determined volume and cover usin
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The stems were divided at 4 mm (0.1
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RESIDUES TREATMENT EFFECTS As descr
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Overall shrub recovery rates do not
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Rose behaved similar to ninebark (f
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Meanwhile, small shrub cover change
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Biomass Regression analyses relatin
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SILVICULTURE TREATMENT EFFECTS Harv
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RESIDUES TREATMENT EFFECTS Major sh
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Lesser vegetation--herbs and small
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Leaf and stem components of the shr
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APPENDIX I Trees and shrubs found o
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INTRODUCTION Many western larch (La
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Figure 2. --Lower cutting blocks on
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each permanent point) of the clearc
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Figure 3.--Marking gemination and c
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were not significant. These treatme
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Tab1 e 2. --Fi 11 ed conifer seed (
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Dispersal of sound seed on the uppe
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Table $.--Number of 3- and 5-year-o
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Table 6. --Germination of conifers
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Survival, growth and form will be m
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Es tab1 ishment and Initial Develop
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to the amount of residue originally
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As the following tabulation shows,
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Soot-Seeded Broadcast burning, and
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Natural Regeneration Natural regene
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.4s shown in fig. 5, vegetation was
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Interestingly, the high phenol leve
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DeByle, Norbert V. 1980. Harvesting
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EFFECT OF SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES,
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mountain pine beetle. These two for
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GROUP SELECTION 22 CONTROL SHELTERW
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FIELD AND LABORATORY PROCEDURES To
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I Many of the groups were trapped v
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shelterwood with residues, were sig
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HARVESTING AND RESIDUE MANAGEMENT T
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indicate a treatment effect of burn
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Undisturbed Forest .". . . . Clearc
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1 equally abundant in all treatment
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I not seem to be directly caused by
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the undisturbed forests. Some resea
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Huhta, V., E. Karppinen, M. Nurmine
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POPULATIONS OF SOME FOREST LITTER,
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STUDY DESIGN The study area is loca
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GROUP SELECTION 22 CONTROL '... . .
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Sampling in 1977 was restricted to
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Table 1 .--Mean total mesofauna pop
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0 - (JUNE) from S helterwood (AUGUS
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SHELTERWOOD--RESIDUE BURNED The eff
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In the first season or two followin
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LITERATURE CITED Ahlgren, I. F. 197
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A REVIEW OF SOME INTERACTIONS BETWE
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and Keen 1960; Felix and others 197
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Pissodes strobi Peck, In a thinned
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foresters feel as though "It's 1 i
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The large aerial spray programs aga
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Weakened living trees, or trees kil
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Most western pine beetle attacks in
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The galleries, or mines, of wood bo
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Other wood borers. --Several specie
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Deterioration of spruce (Picea a. )
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The eruption of Mount Saint Helens
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Bark and engraver beetles infesting
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In the northern Rockies, one conife
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management, and not the beetle." If
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investigation regardin controlled b
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WOOD BORERS Mitchell and Martin (In
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Still, by 1938, there was a feeling
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I Different i nvesti gators have us
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if the forest floor is completely c
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Carabids as biological control agen
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een placed for protection from rode
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with every tree in the stand contin
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Spiders as predators.--Studies have
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At least two studies have been made
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In the long-leaf pine forests in th
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RESIDUES, FIRES, INSECTS, AND FORES
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In the spruce-fir stands infested w
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Recently, Senator John Me1 cher (Mo
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plans. Since fire, too, is a decomp
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CHANGING FOREST INSECT PROBLEMS Ins
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Basham, J. T. 1957. The deteriorati
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Cole, D. M. 1978. Feasibility of si
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Fellin, D. G. and P. C. Johnson. 19
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Graham, S. A. 1922. Some entomoloqi
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Huhta, V., M. Nurminen and A. Valpa
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Lawrence, W. H. and 3. H. Rediske.
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Miller, J. M. and J. E. Patterson.
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Rice, L * A. 1932. The effect of fi
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Stoddard, H. L. Sr. 1963. Bird habi
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Weaver, Harol d. 1951. Fire as an e
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RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS Th
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INFLUENCE OF HARVESTING AND RESIDUE
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F
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NEAR COMPLETE Figure 2.--Byrmnts f
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Figure 3.-- Bymrmrs fireZine intens
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F5qure 4. --Byramrs fireZ-Cne inten
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1. Nomographs of Rate of Spread, Fi
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3. Consider other fire-related fact
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Puckett, John V., Cameron M. Johnst
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Important and rapid progress has be
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tlarvested Areas What happened when
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UNCUT SHELTERWOOD Protect understor
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Initially the areas are rated low.
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The primary reason for this discrep
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f n contrast to displaced bears, so
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Quantitative data on grizzly behavi
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Asherin, Duane A. 1976. Changes in
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Leege, Thomas A. 1969. Burning sera
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Reynolds, Hudson G. 1969. Aspen gro
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INFLUENCES OF HARVESTING AND RESIDU
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CLEARCUT LOGGING & COMPLETE BURN DE
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C LEARCUT LOGGING & BROADCAST BURN
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EFFECTS OF SMALL MAMMALS ON FOREST
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I I Habitat Manipulation Small mamm
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Fala, Robert A. 1975. Effects of pr
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Tevis, Lloyd Jr. l956b. Pocket goph
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forests are cavity nesters. They ar
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GROUP SELECTION: A1 1 merchantab le
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TABLE 3. Pre- and post-logging volu
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Censuses Censuses for all species (
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Fbgure 6.-- Lightn
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Pileated Woodpeckers on the CEF nes
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TABLE 7. Percent of sampling time t
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I Observed woodpecker feeding Down,
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Table 9 shows feeding time in the l
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L c - 10- ul 2 0 8- 6 - 4 2 - - 0 .
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Figure 15. -- A Hairy Woodpecker ne
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~
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oth offered advice on study site se
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Hairy Woodpecker Downy Woodpecker B
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THE SITUATION Forest land managers
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In the descriptive approach, howeve
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ORGANIZING INFORMATION One differen
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As has already been stated, the for
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Figure 7.--Matrix of interactions b
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understory biomass density, X2 repr
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or, by rearrangement, AX. I afi Ax,
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DISCUSSION It is important to note
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LITERATURE CITED Billings, W. D. 19
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Richard T. Wick Burlington Northern
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themselves, the traditional industr
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highways. Of course, all roads are
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Darrel L. Kenops District Ranger US
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In the future we will see our const
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Lyon, L. Jack, Project Leader, Ecol
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The Intermountain Station, headquar
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