ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES in rocky mountain coniferous ...

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~ 4) Old-growth units should not be isolated with vast stretches of clearcuts or short rotation stands separating them. Ideally, old-growth units of 50-100 acres (20 to 40 ha) should be connected with forest corridors at least 300 ft (91 m) wide. In many cases corridors could follow creeks, also achieving protection of aquatic ecosystems and providing travel lanes and escape cover for other wildlife. 5) High stumps support carpenter ant colonies and provide feeding sites for woodpeckers. Wherever carpenter ant activity is identified in a cutting unit, a 0.1 acre (0.04 ha) circular area of high stumps could be left around that point if provision of woodpecker food is an objective. 6) Thinning can be detrimental to hole-nesting birds when feeding sites on and near the ground are covered by cut trees and branches. Thinned material and residues should not be piled so as to cover log feeding sites. 7) The relevance of the concept of bird species diversity has been appropriately questioned in relation to resource management objectives (Wiens 1978). Diversity per se is a measure insensitive to which species are present. The species that require large territories (e.g., raptors or Pileated Woodpeckers) may receive little attention if emphasis is on high bird species diversity, particularly over small units of land- scape. However, basic habitat diversity over large forest areas, is an essential element of consideration for resource managers. Certain components of the original diverse forests which existed in northwestern Montana are being greatly reduced as a result of current timber harvesting practices. Original stands of old-growth western larch, for example, have been reduced by nearly one half since timber cutting began. Where old growth is el iminated over vast areas, many birds dependent on it may be extirpated. The importance of perpetuating habitat diversity is therefore a rele- vant and necessary concern of forest resource managers. Old-growth stands in national parks, wilderness, and natural areas are not sufficient in themselves because they could increasingly take on the character of islands surrounded by great seas of short-rotation stands. These "islands," particularly the smaller ones, will probably be incapable of sustaining the same richness of bird species diversity that is present in larger stands. Therefore, on commercial forests the perpetuation of an old-growth component needs to be incorporated as a legitimate goal of the management process. Based on studies at the CEF and nearby areas, we suggest that about 10% of forest planning units in the western larch/Douglas-fir forests be managed as old growth. This can be accomplished by long rotations, partial cutting to encourage larch (but retaining a high basal area in large-diameter classes), not re-entering she1 terwood or seed tree cuts, or other methods that can be devised by skillful interdisciplinary teams. 8) The ecological relationships between birds and the forest may never be completely understood, but recognition of the ecosystem concept requires that hol e-nesting birds and their habitats be perpetuated. If for no other reason they should be perpetuated simply because (to paraphrase Aldo Leopald) the first precaution in intelli- gent management is to keep every cog and wheel. Sufficient data are now available to enable foresters to prepare timber harvesting and residue management plans that are more responsive to the needs of cavity-nesting birds and other members of the wildlife community. AC KMOWLEDGMENTS Richard Blodnick, Brian Cooper, and Barbara Von Gunten served as student research assistants and gathered much of the field data. U.S. Forest Service employees Carl Fie1 dl er, Ray Shearer, Jack Schmidt provided assistance at various stages of the study. Roland Barger, program manager for the residues util ization program, was es- pecially helpful in his continuing support of the study. Curtis Halvorson, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and Sidney Frissel 1 , School of Forestry, University of Montana,
oth offered advice on study site selection. Constructive criticisms of manuscripts drafts were provided by Bob Benson, Dr. Sidney Frissell, Linda Harbine, and Leonard Young. Mary McClelland drew the original graphs. The study was supported by the U.S. Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station; the School of Forestry and the Montana Cooperative Wildlife Unit, University of Montana. LITERATURE CITED Beebe, S.B. 1974. Relationships between insectivorous hole-nesting birds and forest management. Yal e Univ. School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. New Haven, CT. multilithed. 49 p. Bully E.L. 1978. Specialized habitat requirements of birds: snags management, old growth, and riparian habitat. p. 74-82 In Proceedings of the Workshop on nonqame bird habitat management in the coniferousforests of the western United States. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-64 Pacific NW For. and Rge. Exp. Sta. Portland, OR. Bull, E.L. and E.C. Meslow. 1977. Habitat requirements of the Pileated Woodpecker in Northeastern Oregon. - J. For. 75: 335-337. Conner, R.N. and H.S. Crawford. 1974. Woodpecker foraging in Appalachian clearcuts. J. For. 72:564-566. - - Conner, R.N., R.G. Hooper, H.S. Crawford, and H.S. Mosby. 1975. Woodpecker nesting habitat in cut and uncut woodlands in Virginia. --- J. Wildl. Manage. 39:144-150. Ehrenfeld, D.S. 1976. The conservation of non-resources. &. Sci. 64:648-656. Franzreb, K.E. and R.D. Ohmart. 1978. The effects of timber harvesting on breeding birds in a mixed-coniferous forest. Condor 80 (431 -441 ). Franzreb, K.E. 1977. Bird population changes after timber harvesting of a mixed conifer forest in Arizona. USDA Forest Service Res. Paper RM-184 Rocky Mtn. For. and Rge. Exp. Sta., Ft. Collins, CO. 26 p. Hagar, D.C. 1960. Interactions of logging, birds and timber regeneration in the Douglas-fir region of northwestern California. Ecal.. 41 :116-125. Hepting, G.H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the U.S. USDA For. Serv. Agr. Handbook #386. U.S. Gov't. Printing Ofc. 658 p. Kessler, W.B. 1979. Bird population responses to clearcutting in the Tongas NF of southeast Alaska. USDA For. Serv. Alaska Region report 1979. 22 p. McClelland, B.R. 1979. The Pileated Woodpecker in forests of the northern Rocky Mountains. p. 283-299 In The role of insectivorous birds in forest ecosystems. (J.G. Dickson, R.N. Connor, R.R. Fleet, J.A. Jackson, and J.C. Kroll , eds.) Academic Press, NY. McClelland, B.R., S.S. Frissell, W.L. Fisher, and C.H. Halvorson. 1979. Habitat management for hole-nesting birds in forests of western larch and Douglas-fir. -- 3. For. 77:480-483.
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF TIMBE
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USDA Forest Service General Technic
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REW 'ORD One of the pressing proble
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BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS Biological
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By the mid-1 960's the apparently u
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Scientist, audience: "The Three-Mil
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I believe that the future of forest
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enewable resource that can be proce
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productive capacity. Recent legisla
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Much of the research investigating
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Six sale area blocks were logged (f
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Understory Removal Figure 4.--Eccpe
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Gentle slopes and easy access to cu
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Each of the four cutting units was
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A concerted effort was made to coor
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oriented toward the basic response
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WOODY MATERIAL IN NORTHERN ROCKY MO
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STANDING, 3 " 1 DIA. ? (GREEN & DEA
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I 11 Table 1,--Volume of wood by co
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Small material under 3 inch (7.6 cm
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Depending on the cutting and treatm
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MICROENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE TO HARV
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I Where: Cs is the concentration at
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Figure I.-- Residue treatments used
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HARVESTING AND RESIDUE INFLUENCES R
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I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 JAN. FEB. M
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Sensible heat flux, evaporative flu
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SOLO, 1977- 78 UNCUT CUT Mean max.
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It is logical that if surface tempe
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0 - 5 - 10 - 15 20 - Chips - Clrare
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Brown, crumbly, decayed material (B
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At Coram, steep harvested slopes ha
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surface of unburned and hard-burned
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canopy. Light then indirectly cause
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Moisture Moisture is frequently ide
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Net radiation--the measure of the a
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Table 5.--Possible solutions for po
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Cochran, P. H. 1969. Thermal proper
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Lommen, P. W., Cr, R. Schwintzer, C
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Stark, Nel 1 ie. 1980. The impacts
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and water use during the growing se
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The main study site (fig. 1) occupi
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The four residues util i zation tre
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RAIN The major precipitation instru
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Figure 5.--SG,L. wuwr zc)as measure
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S treamf 1 ow A &foot H-flume was i
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Figure 7.--Snow water equivalent on
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Soi 1 Water Water present in the so
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SILVICULTURE TREATMENTS Si 1 vicul
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As indicated in figure 11 and appen
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The most consistent difference in w
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MEAN CONSUMPTIVE USE -ALL YEARS (19
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Lowest daily water use occurred at
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6. Water use began in Apri 1 , acce
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Klages, M. G., R. C. McConnell , an
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APPENDICES Appendix A.--Hydrograph
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Appendix C.--Rainfall reaching the
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Appendix E.--Water use during the g
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One of the most efficient methods o
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Control Chipped Picked up Broadcast
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Control Chapped Picked up Broadcast
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Control Chipped Picked up Broadcast
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' Control Chipped and Picked up and
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One of the least detrimental residu
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INTRODUCTION In the early days, the
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%pire 1.--Measured concentrations (
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The silvicul tural treatments appli
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I 2 Table 2. --Percent of total qua
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Unmerchantable TOP Shrubs Lower Cro
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create a nitrogen deficiency during
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Steele, R. W. 1975. Understory burn
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National Forest. This paper summari
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UNIT 2 CONVENT IONALLY Du Bois, Wyo
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Trees Figures 3 and 4 show the oven
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Weights of typical trees on these t
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pi1 ed-burned treatments were lowes
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MINERAL SOIL Total nutrient content
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Tab1 e 5. --Concentrations of avai
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Table 6. --Average concentrations o
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sites. Burning then transformed the
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RESIDUE DECAY PROCESSES AND ASSOCIA
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The hardwood or angiospermous timbe
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Woody Substrates Gyrnnospermsr (Int
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Natural inoculation of residues may
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On the Coram site, brown-rot fungi
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Table 2.--Probability (P) of encoun
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Recognizable brown-cubical decayed
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I Newly formed, small-dimension res
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Highley, T. L. 1976. Hemicellulases
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MICROBIAL PROCESSES ASSOCIATED WITH
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Nonsymbiotic N Fixation Free-1 ivin
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In a previous paper (Jurgensen and
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Symbiotic N Fixation The establishm
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carbon and NHq (Ahlgren, 1974). Mic
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Prescribed f~re CLEARCUT - BURN CLE
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Hungerford, R.9. 1980. Microenvi ro
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ECOLOGY OF ECTOMYCORRHIZAE IN NORTH
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Coram - Subalpine fir Site (ABLAICL
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Figure 2.-- ReZative yield capabiZi
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Figure 5. -- Percentage of soCZ-woo
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Figure 9,-- Percentage of toid ectm
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Effect of Soil Components on Ectomy
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Effect of Organic Matter Quantity o
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PARTIAL CUT Effect of Harvesting on
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Figure 20. -- Average nwnbers of ac
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Gijbl , F. 1967. Mykorrhizauntersuc
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BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS Initial cha
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FOREST SOIL BIOLOGY The act of incr
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the soil will retain its ability to
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Since the best quantity of organic
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We can also visualize situations on
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Harvey, A. E., M. F. Jurgensen, and
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INTRODUCTION Vegetation integrates
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Because of cool, wet weather in 197
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We determined volume and cover usin
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The stems were divided at 4 mm (0.1
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RESIDUES TREATMENT EFFECTS As descr
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Overall shrub recovery rates do not
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Rose behaved similar to ninebark (f
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Meanwhile, small shrub cover change
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Biomass Regression analyses relatin
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SILVICULTURE TREATMENT EFFECTS Harv
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RESIDUES TREATMENT EFFECTS Major sh
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Lesser vegetation--herbs and small
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Leaf and stem components of the shr
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APPENDIX I Trees and shrubs found o
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INTRODUCTION Many western larch (La
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Figure 2. --Lower cutting blocks on
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each permanent point) of the clearc
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Figure 3.--Marking gemination and c
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were not significant. These treatme
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Tab1 e 2. --Fi 11 ed conifer seed (
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Dispersal of sound seed on the uppe
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Table $.--Number of 3- and 5-year-o
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Table 6. --Germination of conifers
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Survival, growth and form will be m
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Es tab1 ishment and Initial Develop
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to the amount of residue originally
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As the following tabulation shows,
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Soot-Seeded Broadcast burning, and
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Natural Regeneration Natural regene
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.4s shown in fig. 5, vegetation was
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Interestingly, the high phenol leve
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DeByle, Norbert V. 1980. Harvesting
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EFFECT OF SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES,
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mountain pine beetle. These two for
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GROUP SELECTION 22 CONTROL SHELTERW
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FIELD AND LABORATORY PROCEDURES To
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I Many of the groups were trapped v
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shelterwood with residues, were sig
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HARVESTING AND RESIDUE MANAGEMENT T
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indicate a treatment effect of burn
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Undisturbed Forest .". . . . Clearc
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1 equally abundant in all treatment
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I not seem to be directly caused by
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the undisturbed forests. Some resea
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Huhta, V., E. Karppinen, M. Nurmine
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POPULATIONS OF SOME FOREST LITTER,
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STUDY DESIGN The study area is loca
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GROUP SELECTION 22 CONTROL '... . .
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Sampling in 1977 was restricted to
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Table 1 .--Mean total mesofauna pop
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0 - (JUNE) from S helterwood (AUGUS
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SHELTERWOOD--RESIDUE BURNED The eff
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In the first season or two followin
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LITERATURE CITED Ahlgren, I. F. 197
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A REVIEW OF SOME INTERACTIONS BETWE
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and Keen 1960; Felix and others 197
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Pissodes strobi Peck, In a thinned
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foresters feel as though "It's 1 i
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The large aerial spray programs aga
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Weakened living trees, or trees kil
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Most western pine beetle attacks in
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The galleries, or mines, of wood bo
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Other wood borers. --Several specie
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Deterioration of spruce (Picea a. )
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The eruption of Mount Saint Helens
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Bark and engraver beetles infesting
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In the northern Rockies, one conife
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management, and not the beetle." If
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investigation regardin controlled b
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WOOD BORERS Mitchell and Martin (In
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Still, by 1938, there was a feeling
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I Different i nvesti gators have us
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if the forest floor is completely c
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Carabids as biological control agen
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een placed for protection from rode
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with every tree in the stand contin
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Spiders as predators.--Studies have
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At least two studies have been made
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In the long-leaf pine forests in th
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RESIDUES, FIRES, INSECTS, AND FORES
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In the spruce-fir stands infested w
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Recently, Senator John Me1 cher (Mo
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plans. Since fire, too, is a decomp
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CHANGING FOREST INSECT PROBLEMS Ins
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Basham, J. T. 1957. The deteriorati
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Cole, D. M. 1978. Feasibility of si
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Fellin, D. G. and P. C. Johnson. 19
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Graham, S. A. 1922. Some entomoloqi
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Huhta, V., M. Nurminen and A. Valpa
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Lawrence, W. H. and 3. H. Rediske.
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Miller, J. M. and J. E. Patterson.
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Rice, L * A. 1932. The effect of fi
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Stoddard, H. L. Sr. 1963. Bird habi
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Weaver, Harol d. 1951. Fire as an e
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RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS Th
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INFLUENCE OF HARVESTING AND RESIDUE
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F
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NEAR COMPLETE Figure 2.--Byrmnts f
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Figure 3.-- Bymrmrs fireZine intens
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F5qure 4. --Byramrs fireZ-Cne inten
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1. Nomographs of Rate of Spread, Fi
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3. Consider other fire-related fact
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Puckett, John V., Cameron M. Johnst
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Important and rapid progress has be
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tlarvested Areas What happened when
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UNCUT SHELTERWOOD Protect understor
Page 441 and 442: Initially the areas are rated low.
Page 443 and 444: The primary reason for this discrep
Page 445 and 446: f n contrast to displaced bears, so
Page 447 and 448: Quantitative data on grizzly behavi
Page 449 and 450: Asherin, Duane A. 1976. Changes in
Page 451 and 452: Leege, Thomas A. 1969. Burning sera
Page 453 and 454: Reynolds, Hudson G. 1969. Aspen gro
Page 455 and 456: INFLUENCES OF HARVESTING AND RESIDU
Page 457 and 458: CLEARCUT LOGGING & COMPLETE BURN DE
Page 459 and 460: C LEARCUT LOGGING & BROADCAST BURN
Page 461 and 462: EFFECTS OF SMALL MAMMALS ON FOREST
Page 463 and 464: I I Habitat Manipulation Small mamm
Page 465 and 466: Fala, Robert A. 1975. Effects of pr
Page 467 and 468: Tevis, Lloyd Jr. l956b. Pocket goph
Page 469 and 470: forests are cavity nesters. They ar
Page 471 and 472: GROUP SELECTION: A1 1 merchantab le
Page 473 and 474: TABLE 3. Pre- and post-logging volu
Page 475 and 476: Censuses Censuses for all species (
Page 477 and 478: Fbgure 6.-- Lightn
Page 479 and 480: Pileated Woodpeckers on the CEF nes
Page 481 and 482: TABLE 7. Percent of sampling time t
Page 483 and 484: I Observed woodpecker feeding Down,
Page 485 and 486: Table 9 shows feeding time in the l
Page 487 and 488: L c - 10- ul 2 0 8- 6 - 4 2 - - 0 .
Page 489 and 490: Figure 15. -- A Hairy Woodpecker ne
Page 491: ~
Page 495 and 496: Hairy Woodpecker Downy Woodpecker B
Page 497 and 498: THE SITUATION Forest land managers
Page 499 and 500: In the descriptive approach, howeve
Page 501 and 502: ORGANIZING INFORMATION One differen
Page 503 and 504: As has already been stated, the for
Page 505 and 506: Figure 7.--Matrix of interactions b
Page 507 and 508: understory biomass density, X2 repr
Page 509 and 510: or, by rearrangement, AX. I afi Ax,
Page 511 and 512: DISCUSSION It is important to note
Page 513 and 514: LITERATURE CITED Billings, W. D. 19
Page 515 and 516: Richard T. Wick Burlington Northern
Page 517 and 518: themselves, the traditional industr
Page 519 and 520: highways. Of course, all roads are
Page 521 and 522: Darrel L. Kenops District Ranger US
Page 523 and 524: In the future we will see our const
Page 525 and 526: Lyon, L. Jack, Project Leader, Ecol
Page 527: The Intermountain Station, headquar
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