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193 REIFICATION Turns of phrase like Schibsbye’s (1970: 37) ‘The subjunctive in principal clauses cannot be said to be living in modern English’ are in principle better, since they allow us to understand them as ‘in modern English usage’, but even they reify ‘English’ as opposed to the forms produced by English speakers or the speakers themselves. A formulation such as Gimson’s (1962: 158) ‘Some RP speakers will also use [ʔ] to replace /t/ . ..’clearly shows where the variation (in this case) arises: with the speakers. (Gimson also uses other formulations, of course.) How important is all this? As long as one is aware of the reification, it is probably not very important. But it is easy to lose track of the fact that one is dealing with a reification, and then it can be important. For example, if we say ‘New Zealand English is in the process of merging the near and the square vowels’ we get a rather different picture from if we say ‘Speakers of New Zealand English are less and less likely to distinguish the near and square vowels.’ Only in the latter case do we see a reason to ask, ‘Why should people behave in this way?’ Asking why language changes in a particular way might be seen as a very different question, with a different set of possible answers. So there are times when it is valuable to remind ourselves that a language such as English or German or Japanese is a reification of an abstract idea. It is probably less of a problem to remind ourselves that theoretical constructs such as the Right-hand Head Rule or Move-Alpha or a particular morphophonemic transcription are equally abstract constructs. While we remain aware of them as hypotheses, or structures and concepts generated within a particular theory, there is little danger of misusing them. If we start to think of them as realities which inhabit the world of linguistics, there is the potential for problems to arise. The result is that a statement such as ‘English has /p/’ is a theory-laden statement. It presents a reification of English, it assumes a notion of a phoneme, which it assumes has some kind of reality, and it assumes the correctness of a classification in which ‘p’ is meaningful. Every one of these assumptions has been challenged at some point. If we don’t make assumptions about our theoretical bases, on the other hand, it be<strong>com</strong>es extremely difficult to talk about things at all. ‘Speakers of English have been observed to used a [p]-sound contrastively’ is not only far more long-winded than ‘English has /p/’, it fails to cancel all of the assumptions in that shorter statement. Reification is unavoidable; at times, making a deliberate effort to over<strong>com</strong>e the reification can be a useful thing to do. References Gimson, A. C. (1962). An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. London: Arnold.
THE LINGUISTICS STUDENT’S HANDBOOK 194 Palmer, Frank (1971). Grammar. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech & Jan Svartvik (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London and New York: Longman. Schibsbye, Knud (1970). A Modern English Grammar. 2nd edn. London: Oxford University Press.
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The Linguistics Student's Handbook
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‘Laurie Bauer’s Handbook is a t
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© Laurie Bauer, 2007 Edinburgh Uni
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THE LINGUISTICS STUDENT’S HANDBOO
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Part I: Some fundamentals of lingui
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11 Binarity Binarity is, in effect,
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14 Native speaker The native speake
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16 Notational conventions Linguisti
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97 NOTATIONAL CONVENTIONS Given the
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99 NOTATIONAL CONVENTIONS (. ..) Th
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101 NOTATIONAL CONVENTIONS use it a
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103 NOTATIONAL CONVENTIONS Table 16
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105 FREQUENT ABBREVIATIONS AND INIT
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18 Terminology: ambiguity There are
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109 TERMINOLOGY: AMBIGUITY Table 18
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117 TERMINOLOGY: SYNONYMY Table 19.
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20 The International Phonetic Assoc
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129 THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ASSO
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21 Reading phonetics and phonology
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133 READING PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
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135 READING PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
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22 Foreign expressions Although few
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23 Letters, accents and diacritics
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141 LETTERS, ACCENTS AND DIACRITICS
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Page 170 and 171: 159 LAWS AND PRINCIPLES Verner’s
Page 172 and 173: 161 LAWS AND PRINCIPLES Kiparsky, P
Page 174 and 175: 163 STATISTICS in British English,
Page 176 and 177: 165 STATISTICS means giving a known
Page 178 and 179: 167 STATISTICS numbers do not add u
Page 180 and 181: 169 STATISTICS in twenty. So p < 0.
Page 182 and 183: 28 Some on-line resources for lingu
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Page 192 and 193: 181 ESSAY WRITING 4.3 Affricate 4.4
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243 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Can
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245 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Cat
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247 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Chi
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249 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Chu
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251 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Cro
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253 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Dan
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255 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Din
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257 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Dyi
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259 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Err
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261 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Ewe
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263 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Fin
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265 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Ful
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267 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Geo
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269 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Gre
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271 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Guu
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273 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Hau
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275 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Hin
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277 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Hun
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279 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Ilo
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281 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Jac
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283 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Kam
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285 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Kar
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287 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Kil
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289 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Kob
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291 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Kor
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293 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Kwa
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295 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Len
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297 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Mac
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299 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Mal
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301 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Mam
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303 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Mar
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305 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Mei
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307 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Mix
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309 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Nah
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311 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Ndy
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313 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Niu
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315 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Nor
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317 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Oro
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319 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Pan
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321 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Pim
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323 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Pom
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325 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Qui
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327 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Rom
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329 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Sam
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331 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Ser
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333 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Sin
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335 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Slo
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337 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Spa
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339 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Swa
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341 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Tak
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343 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Tha
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345 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Tiw
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347 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Tok
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349 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Tru
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351 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Tur
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353 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Tzo
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355 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Uru
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357 LANGUAGE FILE Language name War
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359 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Wel
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361 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Wol
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363 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Yid
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365 LANGUAGE FILE Language name Zap
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367 LANGUAGE FILE Language name !X
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369 LANGUAGE FILE Bauer, Winifred (
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371 LANGUAGE FILE Crazzolara, J. P.
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377 LANGUAGE FILE Mintz, Malcolm W.
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383 INDEX cliché, 13 closed class,
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385 INDEX micron, 140 minimal pair,
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387 INDEX theta-criterion, 158 thor
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