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THE LINGUISTICS STUDENT’S HANDBOOK 30
Adverb: While an adverb is literally something which modifies a verb, like
quickly in She ran quickly,adverbs have a much wider usage than that.
They frequently modify adjectives, like particularly in a particularly
intelligent person, or whole sentences, like unfortunately in
Unfortunately they could not come.Adverb tends to be a ragbag category
in traditional grammar, with many words which do not fit obviously
into other categories being classified as adverbs. Adverbs are not always
marked morphologically: not in She did not look up is classified as an
adverb, and the up may also be classified as an adverb in some sources
(see below under particle).
Article: In English there are two articles, the and a(n), the so-called
definite and indefinite articles respectively. Articles are one type of
determiner.
Conjunction: Conjunctions link elements together. They are usually
divided into coordinating conjunctions (like English and, but, or),
which link units of equivalent status, and subordinating conjunctions
(like English because, if, when, etc.), which mark something as
being a constituent element within a larger construction (so in I wonder
if he will come, if shows that if he will come is an element, in this case
acting as the direct object of the verb, in the larger sentence).
Determiner: Determiners are closely associated with nouns and express
notions such as quantity, definiteness and possession. The phrases the
house, this house, my house, every house, Kim’s house contain the noun
house and determiners of different kinds. Note that although the word
this is a determiner in this construction, it is not always a determiner.
Interjection: An interjection is something like Ow! or Gosh!,words which
do not have relations with the other words in the sentence but stand
alone.
Participle: Participles were introduced earlier. They have verbal features
and nominal or adjectival features. In English, forms in -ing and in -ed
such as loving and desired are participles, though other languages may
have more participles, relating to different tenses. An -ing participle (or
the equivalent in other languages) used nominally may be termed a
gerund.
Particle: Particles are usually short, uninflected, grammatical words. What
counts as a particle may vary from language to language, or even from
author to author. In English, things called particles include the up in
She looked her sister up (which may also be termed an adverb or an adposition
– see above), the to in We wanted to leave, the like in Kim’s like
really cross with me, or innit (derived from isn’t it) used as a tag question.
Pronoun: A pronoun is usually said to be something which stands for a
noun, though it would be better to say it stands for a complete phrase