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1. Depressives showed significantly less dominant form in their pictures than any other group. 2. As expected, the pictures of controls showed the most dominant form (significantly more than depressives, schizophrenics and personality disorder). 3. Substance abusers' pictures were not significantly lower than controls (but they were significantly higher than depressed). 4. Against expectations, schizophrenics showed significantly more dominant form in their pictures than depressives. There was no evidence to support the diagnosis of schizophrenia rather than any other patient group from lack of form, but depression may be indicated by such. Controls did score more than any patient group, but this may not be an indicator of health as such, because substance abusers overlap these scores. Summary of results by characteristics of typical pictures from all other groups: Schizophrenia: pictures showing very little black, of low intensity with some dominant form. Substance abuse: high levels of black, low green, drawn lines not painted, some dominant form. Depression: moderate levels of black (less than half the picture, but more than a quarter), no dominant form. Personality disorder: less than half the picture black, low green, higher intensity, some dominant form. 262
Controls: more positive emotional tone, and half or more of the picture contains the dominant form. Additional characteristics of controls: more red, yellow and green than other paintings, more intense colours, painted rather than drawn line and less empty space. Predictive value of the DAPA for patient status In order to find a combination of variables that classified a large proportion of subjects into the correct group so as to have good chance of allocating (diagnosing) new subjects correctly, the Discriminant Analysis technique was used to determine predictive value of the DAPA. A preliminary attempt between patient groups used the whole sample of 109 and yielded the percentage of grouped cases correctly classified as 81%. However, some caution was warranted in interpreting this figure because the classification functions were derived from the group of study; most authorities recommend reserving an independent data set on which to assess the fitness of the model 288 . A much sounder approach, at this stage was to divide the whole sample into two samples patients and non-patients and derive the classification functions using one of the samples and then, using these functions, to attempt to classify those subjects in the second sample as either controls or patients. Table 11 presents the results of the classification for the section which derives the functions and for the reserved section (which acts as the independent data set) repeated with five different partitions. The 288 D.G. Altman (1994), Practical Statistics for Medical Research , London, 5th Ed. original 1991: Chapman Hall, p.359. 263
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The psychopathology of everyday art
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Table of Contents Page Number Chapt
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List of Illustrations, Figures and
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quality. 113 Table 5: Reliability s
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Table, boxplot and spreadplot 1e (b
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Table 19: Correlation for DAPA vari
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Acknowledgements, thanks and forewo
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concludes on the effectiveness of t
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or drawing progresses, relationship
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The link between genius as a produc
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again by a multidisciplinary team w
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theoretical foundation relating art
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the content of which was seemingly
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approach. Some of the major critici
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Gestalt Analysis Rudolph Arnheim ha
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molar level and not by individual e
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Attempts to lists characteristics o
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tests are still popular in assessme
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investigation of artwork, but few h
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expressions of a disordered psyche.
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own paintings, or on interpretation
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pointing to integrative or global j
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Chapter Two: Review of the recent l
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etrieved from the Psychlit, which p
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a major proportion of the study mat
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psychopathology, something which is
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3 13 5 5 5 1 3 2 10 0 0 2 11 0 0 3
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social/developmental energy theorie
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advanced from all types of papers b
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Art therapists begin their career f
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talent and therefore do not fit in
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2. Research studies There were two
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Method of study or description of t
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olds and only 2 with over 60s. The
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form of this expression and how it
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Content: 16 studies reported change
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Pictures by bipolar depressives sho
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This section does not deal strictly
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correlation of art elements with de
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of form 154 . The formal elements w
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ecognise and work through the situa
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Conclusion The use of art was not i
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Thematic interpretation varied with
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(2) to find out how the art relates
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There were 7 demographic variables:
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No. 1 judges 2 3 4 60 No. 2 Study 3
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satisfactory classification as it i
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or non-art tests which were not see
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favoured (12% n=6) over post measur
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procedures, or publishing bias, sin
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Table 8b. Analysis of variance perf
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spread between subjective and objec
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are linked to those artistic charac
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3 Demographic variables were used f
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Table 2. Diagnostic groups for 70 s
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However, there were few tests which
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include recognisable or identifiabl
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and emotional indicators in drawing
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The DDS (1988) study was an explora
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which were not significant - and I
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eliability studies or studies which
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Thematic variables Table 1: reliabi
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etween grades of the same diagnosis
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personally expressive images than '
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to trees (52); size of figure (75);
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Table 4: reliability statistics and
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Line Table 5: reliability statistic
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Purpose or use of line contained on
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Shape variables (study no.) (o) obj
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Colour Table 7: reliability statist
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number of colours. Furthermore with
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subcategories were congruous and al
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(35, 46, 36, 38, 33); and indicator
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Summary: There are unresolved defin
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Summary: The effect which distingui
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Summary: Striking variation in glob
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Reliability: Perseveration is a non
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(including schizophrenics) against
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The studies are difficult to sum up
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indicate greater agreement (even th
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Two weaknesses lie in the simple ca
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of drawing areas and to quantify wh
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Is Meta Analysis appropriate for th
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techniques which compensate for unr
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drawing evaluation with comments fr
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There are few answers to this criti
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attention to overall effect sizes t
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The 'File Drawer Problem' (refer ba
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Table 2. All variables for 11 studi
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Less than a third of the drawing ar
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Case study and controlled research
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potential for psychiatric populatio
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only are discussed (indicators whic
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specific areas of positivity could
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Rating Guide (Hacking & Foreman 199
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Table 2: Summary table of expected
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Previous methods of assessing atomi
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cases as to whether informed consen
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It was decided to use a large mixed
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paintings was not reliable enough t
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computed on any of these levels. Gr
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The DAPA (Descriptive Assessment fo
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The extremes of the distribution fo
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The difficulty with using t-tests i
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addition it leaves out other variab
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Page 214 and 215: identified were included in the stu
Page 216 and 217: DISCUSSION • The validity of the
Page 218 and 219: and the test used terminology which
Page 220 and 221: How the data were structured Althou
Page 222 and 223: How well does the method agree? Tab
Page 224 and 225: - 76% - of the scales were rated wi
Page 226 and 227: Green Blue Brown White Black Intens
Page 228 and 229: All of the scales were understood b
Page 230 and 231: Table 1: Demographics for experimen
Page 232 and 233: classify, even as in and out patien
Page 234 and 235: score for each subject was a ratio
Page 236 and 237: each participant received the same
Page 238 and 239: Results Interaction effects: The me
Page 240 and 241: was no evidence of impoverishment f
Page 242 and 243: Chapter 5. Results This chapter pre
Page 244 and 245: appendix 2) and these were left in
Page 246 and 247: fairly small, less than 0.1, indica
Page 248 and 249: Red, Green, Black, Drawn Line, Emot
Page 250 and 251: 1. Neither schizophrenics nor depre
Page 252 and 253: schizophrenia was indistinguishable
Page 254 and 255: Black: Black is the darkest colour
Page 256 and 257: the other groups since no confidenc
Page 258 and 259: Drawn line: The normal distribution
Page 260 and 261: proportions of empty space in the p
Page 264 and 265: function contributed significantly
Page 266 and 267: the discriminant analysis. It will
Page 268 and 269: Subordinate Analyses Interaction ef
Page 270 and 271: Table 15: showing correlations betw
Page 272 and 273: 2. Intensity showed a correlation o
Page 274 and 275: quality and reliability of their me
Page 276 and 277: as being unreliable, would be metho
Page 278 and 279: There would be a correlation betwee
Page 280 and 281: Figures 3. Map of Associations betw
Page 282 and 283: Schizophrenic pictures showed corre
Page 284 and 285: The DAPA results for depression are
Page 286 and 287: abusers 308 , but not the schizophr
Page 288 and 289: Control pictures showed the only as
Page 290 and 291: yellow Structural variables Figures
Page 292 and 293: directly, to answer this question.
Page 294 and 295: yellow and green, its removal would
Page 296 and 297: Schizophrenics used little colour e
Page 298 and 299: directly to the environment; assess
Page 300 and 301: influence on apparent negativity. W
Page 302 and 303: ather than for schizophrenia 335 .
Page 304 and 305: Supporting this point, the focus ar
Page 306 and 307: Several kinds of difficulties were
Page 308 and 309: portraiture, so it is difficult to
Page 310 and 311: 1, as generally the scores for schi
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numbers resulted in differentiation
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at or above the usual level. Person
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size (_=0.36) which contrasts wildl
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sets had all the identified high ef
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hospital; the mean of up to 10 pain
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eliability of the test and shows th
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Chapter 7. Conclusion This thesis r
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probably because the form variables
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etween different groups of patients
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previously unexplored, which comple
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statistical tests and missing data
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psychopathology in clinical diagnos
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6 scales to categorise commonalitie
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Orientation of the researcher, what
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Validity Analysis of controlled stu
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_ 2 _ _ _ _ 2 _ .3_ 1 1 _ B _ 2 1 2
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6j. Standard differences from mean
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Correlation table 16 for DAPA varia
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eliefs to depression. cannot be mat
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Table 4: summarising changes or sig
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Table 6: summarising changes or sig
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13 22y. male Violence and substance
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Crosstabulations 1-6: contingency t
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Crosstabulation 3: ORIENTATION By B
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Crosstabulation 5: FORM OF EXPRESSI
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Reliability Study Chapter 4 - Metho
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Raters R1-7 score for ORANGE, pics
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-4_ _ R-A _________________________
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e _ _ -4_ _ R-A ___________________
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c _ _ e _ _ -4_ _ R-A _____________
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Appendix 3 Table of Authorities 1.
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connection from victim to victimize
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Hodnett, M.L. (1973), A broader vie
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Muller-Braunschweig, H. (1975), Psy
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Siegel, L. (1988), The use of mural
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Psycho-Analysis , V.6(2):183-200. 3
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10 Fagin, I. (1983), Images of grow
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Institute Creative Arts Therapy Rev
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psychotics, Perceptual and Motor Sk
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Appendix 4 Development of the Descr
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D.A.P.A. DESCRIPTIVE ASSESSMENT OF
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INTENSITY DEFINITION: Firstly, the
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SPACE >10% >25% >55% >80% >100% DEF
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Part 2 Rating Sheet for DAPA: Hacki
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Rating Sheet for Casenotes DAPA ver
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D.A.P.A. DESCRIPTIVE ASSESSMENT OF
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Intensity DEFINITION: The brightnes
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Form sheet for Artists. Side 2. DAP
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Appendix 5 Permission for study, in
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North Staffordshire Health Authorit
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Psychiatry Dept., School P.G. Medic
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Bibliography 418
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Psychiatry, 152(suppl.1): 33-57. Ca
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V.11: 139-143. Kaplan, F.F. (1996),
Page 424 and 425:
Reuven, S.K. (1998), Reversal of a
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Blackwell. Arrington, D. (1992), Ar
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MacGregor, J.D. (1989), The Discove
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Research (ICD-10 DCR), Geneva: Auth
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