Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health

Zoonotic waterborne pathogens in livestock 139energy needs of rural India and, despite 40 years of promotion, doubt remains with someconcluding that the lifetime social and economic benefits of the heavily subsidizedIndian family-scale biogas plants do not equal the costs of construction and maintenance.This case-study underlines the importance of socio-cultural factor in influencinguptake. In India, there is a long tradition of use of cow manure: dried cow dung is animportant fuel in rural areas and dung mixed with other substances “gobar lipa” isused for coating the floor, walls and yard, of village homes; this undoubtedlyincreased the acceptability of the innovation. The importance of the positive attitudetowards cattle dung is highlighted by the great reluctance to use methane producedfrom human faeces: even connecting the toilet to household biogas plants is resistedby almost all people.Other lessons from this case study are the need for simple, easily maintainedtechnology, the benefits of continued adaptation and re-invention of innovations, theimportance of support from both government and non-governmental organizations indisseminating new technologies, and, finally, the challenges of mass uptake of evenheavily-promoted, socially acceptable, environmentally sound, subsidized,manure-management innovations that deliver major health and financial benefits tothe adopters.4.7 CROSS-CUTTING ISSUESMost of this Chapter has been organised around the concept of key control pointswhere intervention can reduce the burden of waterborne zoonoses in domesticlivestock. This final section focuses on some important cross-cutting issues: controlchallenges in developing countries, identification of new control interventions,and emerging trends that may influence future control at the farm level.4.7.1 Developing country issues in controlling animal pathogensat the farm levelThe studies reported in this Chapter on control of zoonotic pathogens were mostlycarried out in the developed world, reflecting the preponderance of research.However, there is no reason to expect that either pathogens of concern, diseaseepidemiology or optimum control strategies at farm level will be the same in thedeveloping world. Firstly, in developed countries the so-called “classicalzoonoses” have been controlled and their potential as waterborne pathogens israrely considered. However, in developing countries many of these areuncontrolled and the extent, if any, of waterborne transmission unascertained.For example, Taenia solium, is a zoonotic tapeworm transmitted among humans