Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health

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Indicators, sanitary surveys and source attribution techniques 321• bacterial concentrations may change abruptly, both spatially and temporally,so that singular microbial assessments become mere snapshots of waterquality captured at a single moment in time (Whitman et al. 2004a).Furthermore, conclusions drawn from epidemiological studies conducted atbeaches in proximity to potential point sources of faecal contamination (i.e.sewage outfalls) do not address the relative risk of exposure in the instancewhere bacterial contamination is predominately from diffuse or animal sources(Kay et al. 1999, Colford et al. 2007).9.2 FIOs – ALTERNATIVE/SECONDARY INDICATORSAND NEW APPROACHESProblems remain in correlating water quality, as identified by these FIOs, to adversehealth outcomes like gastrointestinal illness, many related to the suitability ofindicator species used to set standards (Godfree et al. 1990, Kay et al. 1996). Inaddition to faecal sources (human or animal), indicators may be autochthonous inthe environment in association with sediments (Byappanahalli et al. 2003a, Francy& Gifford 2002, Francy et al. 2003, Shively et al. 2003, Whitman et al. 2003a) orplant material (Byappanahalli et al. 2003b, Whitman et al. 2003b). They may alsobe resuscitated from a non-culturable state, even in the Polar regions (Smith et al.1994, Pommepuy et al. 1996). Studies have indicated that FIOs such as total andfaecal coliforms, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli, and enterococci, areassociated with humans and a variety of animal hosts and may be subject toenvironmental replication and/or persistence, challenging their ability to supportthe discrimination between recent contamination events (Davies et al. 1995,Anderson et al. 1997, Alm et al. 2006, Kon et al. 2007, Ksoll et al. 2007, Poteet al. 2009, Yamahara et al. 2009).9.2.1 Alternative or secondary indicatorsResearch evaluating the suitability of organisms other than E. coli and enterococcias indicators of recreational water quality began over 30 years ago due to concernssuch as inconsistencies in the relationship between pathogens and current pathogenindicators (Bisson & Cabelli 1980, Lund 1996, Lemarchand & Lebaron 2003,Nevers & Whitman 2004a). Some studies have suggested alternative bacteria orviral indicators such as coliphages (Toranzos 1991, Beaudeau et al. 2002,Lovelace 2004), Pseudomonas (Cabelli et al. 1976), enterovirus (Gersburg2004, Noble et al. 2004, Fuhrman et al. 2005), Bacteroidales (Walters et al.2007), and Clostridium perfringens (Bisson & Cabelli 1980, Fujioka &Shizumura 1985, Fujioka 1997, Rose 2004) on the premise that they may have a
322Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Healthbetter correlation to swimmer-related illness than current bacterial indicators undercertain conditions (Table 9.1). Chemical tracers (faecal sterols, caffeine, andoptical brighteners) have also been considered as alternative or secondaryindicators of surface water quality (Isobe et al. 2004, Ferreira 2005, Cao et al.2009, Hussain et al. 2010) (Table 9.1).Table 9.1Traditional and alternative indicators of faecal contamination.Indicator Method ReferenceE. coli Membrane FiltrationONPG-MUGUS EPA Method 1603ISO 9308APHA Method 9223/2005Enterococci Membrane FiltrationMPN/EnterolertUS EPA Method 1600ISO 7839ASTM D6503-99 (2009)Pseudomonas spp. Membrane Filtration/MPNMembrane FiltrationAPHA 9213E, 9213FCYS EN ISO 16266:2008Bacteroidales PCRReal-time PCRBernhard & Field 2000Seurinck et al. 2005ClostridiumperfringensMembrane Filtrationm-CP Medium, 98/83/ECMembrane FiltrationISO 6461/2:1986F+ RNA/DNAColiphagesSingle Agar LayerUS EPA Method 1602Presence-AbsenceUS EPA Method 1601Enterovirus Membrane Filtration/RT-PCR Gilgen et al. 1997Faecal sterols Gas-Liquid Chromatography Murtaugh & Bunch 1967Caffeine GC/MS Buerge et al. 2003Peeler et al. 2006Verenitch & Mazumder 2008Optical Brighteners Fluorometry Hartel et al. 2007At one time, a comparison of the faecal coliform/faecal streptococci (FC/FS)ratio was thought to provide a reasonably precise indication of recent faecalcontamination by warm-blooded animals; humans if the ratio was four or greaterand other animals if the ratio was less than one (Geldreich & Kenner 1969, Hai &Hongdao 1982). Opinion regarding this technique has changed due to thedifferential die-off rates of faecal streptococci species and this assessmentmethod is no longer recommended for gauging surface water quality (Pourcheret al. 1991, APHA 1989). While the FC/FS ratio is no longer recommended asa stand-alone source tracking method, traditional and/or alternative indicators,
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Emerging Issues in Water and Infect
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3Zoonotic waterborne pathogen loads
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Zoonotic waterborne pathogen loads
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the cause of a variety of food- and
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4Zoonotic waterbornepathogens in li
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controlling E. coli-associated diar
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5Transport of microbial pollution i
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7ExposureWill Robertson and Gordon
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Exposure 259main components influen
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Exposure 261rainfall events (Atherh
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Exposure 265Table 7.1 Notable studi
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Exposure 267Table 7.2 Notable studi
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Exposure 269water than zoonotic pat
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IndexAgricultural runoff, 122, 168,
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Index 463Biogas, 137-139, 291Bio-se
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Index 465Critical control points, 1
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Index 467290-291, 293, 295, 300, 30
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Index 469Hazard detection, 285Hazar
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Index 471pathogens, 2, 4-14, 17-21,
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Index 473Probiotics, 132-133Protozo
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Index 475Molecular, 16, 19, 22, 27,
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Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health

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