Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health

Exposure interventions 309human infectious dose and, therefore, the health risk remained undetermined(Kinzelman et al. 2008).Future developments in molecular biology detection capabilities, rapid methods,and species identification (including pathogen) will greatly enhance the informationused for risk assessments and support improved intervention tools. Other toolscurrently under development but reaching end-user operational status includebiosensors and miniaturized techniques using nanotechnology. The arrival ofeasily accessible DNA fingerprinting and web-based genomic libraries couldrevolutionize the science of bio-monitoring and this will benefit theunderstanding of zoonotic pathogens prevalence and better inform exposure andmitigation strategies. Quantitative Risk Assessment (RA) is another technique, tobe discussed in Chapter 10, which characterizes the risk of infection in thecontext of faecal indicator burden and pollutant source. Risk Assessment toolscan aid in crafting effective mitigation/eradication measures by leveraging datagenerated through routine monitoring and identification of exposure routes.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe authors wish to acknowledge the solicited contributions made by the followingindividuals:Dr. Sheridan Kidd-Haack, United States Geologic Survey, Lansing, MI,USA (MST)Mary E. Locking, Health Protection Scotland, Scotland, United Kingdom (E.coli O157:H7)Dr. Kevin Pollock, Health Protection Scotland, Scotland, United Kingdom(E. coli O157:H7, Cryptosporidia)Dr. Jonathan Porter, Environment Agency, Exeter, England, United Kingdom(MST)Dr. Colin N. Ramsay, Health Protection Scotland, Scotland, United Kingdom(Cryptosporidia)Eva van Velzen, Health Protection Scotland, Scotland, United Kingdom (E. coliO157:H7)Dr T. Jacob Young, Kerala State Institute of Virology and Infectious Disease,India (Leptospira)REFERENCESAli, S. (2004). A socio-ecological autopsy of the E. coli O157:H7 outbreak in Walkerton,Ontario, Canada. Soc. Sci. and Med., 58, 2601–2612.