Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health

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Assessing the importance of zoonotic waterborne pathogens 19Newly identified pathogens are of particular concern, as are those whoseprevalence appears to be going through a rapid increase or whose geographicaldistribution is expanding significantly. Such processes have the potential forwidespread and serious public health consequences. A pathogen ordisease-causing agent is considered “emerging” when it makes its appearance ina new host population or when there is a significant increase in its prevalence in agiven population (Cleaveland et al. 2007). Reperant (2010) suggests thatemerging pathogens are the result of changes in and/or between thedisease-affected host species and the reservoir population and/or vector specieswhich act as a source of the pathogen. Examples of this would include changesin host or reservoir population densities and spatial distribution. While emergingwaterborne pathogens are not the focus of this Chapter, the reader may wish tobe aware of specific infectious agents that may be increasing in prominence.2.2 RANKING ZOONOTIC PATHOGENS ASSOCIATEDWITH WATERBORNE DISEASESPublic health agencies have used a variety of criteria to rank zoonotic pathogens(Cardoen et al. 2009, Haagsma et al. 2008, Havelaar et al. 2010, Craun et al.2010) in response to the need to allocate limited public resources strategically toareas of prevention, diagnosis and treatment where the largest social andeconomic benefits can be realized. Along similar lines, Table 2.1 lists criteria torank waterborne pathogens. This ranking considers(1) Evidence that the pathogen is indeed zoonotic (i.e. genotypes of isolatesfrom animals are highly related or identical to those found in humans),(2) Waterborne transmission is known to be a significant route of infection forhumans based on case-control studies (with an odds ratio >2.0) and/orbased on molecular epidemiology,(3) The frequency and severity of waterborne illness,(4) The geographical distribution of waterborne illness associated with thepathogen,(5) Evidence that the pathogen is “emerging”, that is increasing prevalence orgeographic distribution, and,(6) Resistance to water treatment and other remediation efforts.Criteria 1 and 2 are the same as those used by Craun et al. (2010) in theclassification of agents responsible for outbreaks associated with contaminateddrinking-water in the United States.
20Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human HealthWATER QUALITYANIMAL WASTE• Which pathogens are excreted and inwhat quantities?• How are pathogens from animal wastestransported to water?• How does application of animalmanure on farmlands contribute topathogen loads in water?• Contamination of drinking-water sourceswith animal wastes• Poor or no drinking-water treatment• Contaminated water used for ready-to-eatfood crops• Contaminated recreational waters• Type and numbers of pathogens presentin the contaminated waters (quantitativeand qualitative risks)PRIORITYWATERBORNEPATHOGENSHUMAN HEALTH• Frequency and severity of waterbornedisease• Local (endemic) disease• Ease of treatment• Ease of prevention• How many outbreaks have beendocumented due to consumption ofcontaminated drinking-water?Figure 2.1 Questions to facilitate the interrelation of seemingly diverse subjects such as animalwaste, water quality and human health.Pathogens ranking 1 and 2 applying these criteria will be the focus of discussionin the remaining chapters. While those that ranked lower may be of significantimportance in some parts of the world or under specific circumstances,epidemiological data suggests that the organisms in the first two categories posethe greatest global public health risks, and that control of these pathogens inanimal populations, improved waste management, run-off controls andremediation, effective monitoring of water contamination, better water storage
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3Zoonotic waterborne pathogen loads
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Zoonotic waterborne pathogen loads
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the cause of a variety of food- and
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controlling E. coli-associated diar
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5Transport of microbial pollution i
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196Animal Waste, Water Quality and
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7ExposureWill Robertson and Gordon
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Exposure 259main components influen
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Exposure 261rainfall events (Atherh
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Exposure 263contact activities, the
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Exposure 265Table 7.1 Notable studi
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Exposure 267Table 7.2 Notable studi
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Exposure 269water than zoonotic pat
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Exposure 2711999). As suggested by
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Exposure 273leptospirosis is primar
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are severely underreported. As with
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Exposure 277duodenalis in surface w
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Exposure 279Keeley, A. and Faulkner
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Exposure 281Schultz-Fademrecht, C.,
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IndexAgricultural runoff, 122, 168,
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Index 463Biogas, 137-139, 291Bio-se
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Index 465Critical control points, 1
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Index 467290-291, 293, 295, 300, 30
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Index 469Hazard detection, 285Hazar
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Index 471pathogens, 2, 4-14, 17-21,
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Index 473Probiotics, 132-133Protozo
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Index 475Molecular, 16, 19, 22, 27,
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Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health

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