Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health

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are severely underreported. As with monitoring, the chief obstacle interfering withregulation or improved management in this area is the challenge that theresponsibilities for reporting, detection and communication cut across multiplesectors, jurisdictions and geographical boundaries. Examples of specificchallenges to provide context to this problem:• Responsibilities for disease reporting lie with the patient, the diagnosingphysician, the medical laboratory and coordinating health agency, withthe potential existing for information to go unreported or undetected ateach level.• In most countries, gastrointestinal illness is not a reportable illness in and ofitself. At the most basic level, coordinated detection and identification stepsare required in order to positively identify cases of waterborne infectionand illness.• Water exposures of relevance for these discussions (natural water exposures)often involve travel to other jurisdictions, which can increase the difficulty ofcase tracking and outbreak detection.Advancements are being made that may permit some of these challenges to beovercome in the future. Gains in the area of monitoring include the developmentof rapid detection and predictive tools, as well as the gradual betterment of ourunderstanding of pathogen-indicator relationships through continued research inthis area. Challenges facing the improvement of surveillance mechanisms maybe somewhat more daunting, but advances in information technology andelectronic communications are expected to be of great benefit to this area.Considerable investments in terms of time, funding and cooperation betweenmulti-jurisdictional stakeholders will be required to see these expectationsfulfilled; however, the increasing global attention to the issue of waterbornezoonosis may serve as the catalyst for progress.7.5 SUMMARYExposure 275The subject of human exposure to zoonotic waterborne pathogens from livestockwastes is of a considerable complexity. Environmental, biological, behavioural,geographical, political and cultural pressures all combine to form a complexweb dictating the potential for human contact, infection and illness. In general,the risks that livestock pathogens present to humans during activities in relevantaquatic environments are insufficiently understood. Science has advanced ourunderstanding of interrelationships between livestock waste contamination,water impairment, zoonotic pathogens and human infection and illness.However, echoing a conclusion of Chapter 5 – there are still many areas where
276Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Healthour basic knowledge is deficient. The lack of data pertaining to pathogenoccurrence for numerous source and water environment combinations, and anevidence base for accurate measures of exposure for various water contactactivities are but two examples.Continued research is needed to advance our understanding in those areaswhere knowledge is lacking. One important challenge in developing toolsto facilitate exposure assessments with a broad applicability is the role andrelative importance of local factors in influencing the true nature of hostpathogen-environmentinteractions. Despite the advancement of the tools andknowledge, significant efforts will still be required to fit this information to thespecific scenarios, contexts and circumstances. An additional challenge relates tothe aforementioned mismatch between the strength of scientific resources and theburden of global illness seen in developed and developing countries. This raisesthe question how to identify opportunities or solutions for utilizing science tobetter comprehend the risks of livestock waterborne pathogen exposure with amore global focus.REFERENCESAtherholt, T. B., Lechavallier, M. W., Norton, W. D. and Rosen, J. S. (1998). Effect ofrainfall on Giardia and Cryptosporidium. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 90(9), 67–91.Barcellos, C. and Sabroza, P. C. (2001). The place behind the case: leptospirosis risk andassociated environmental conditions in a flood-related outbreak in Rio de Janeiro.Cad. Saúde Pública Rio. de Janeiro., 17, 59–67.Bolton, F. J., Surman, S. B., Martin, K., Wareing, D. R. and Humphrey, T. J. (1999).Presence of Campylobacter and Salmonella in sand from bathing beaches.Epidemiol. Infect., 122(1), 7–13.Brookes, J. D., Antenucci, J., Hipsey, M., Burch, M. D., Ashbolt, N. J. and Ferguson, C.(2004). Fate and transport of pathogens in lakes and reservoirs. Environ. Int., 30(5),741–59.Burkholder, J. M., Mallin, M. A., Glasgow, H. B., Larsen, L. M., McIver, M. R. and Shank,G. C. (1997). Impacts to a coastal river and estuary from rupture of a large swine wasteholding lagoon. Journal of Environmental Quality, 26, 1451–1466.Byappanahalli, M. N. and Fujioka, R. S. (1998). Evidence that tropical soil can support thegrowth of Escherichia coli. Wat. Sci. Technol., 38, 171–174.Byappanahalli, M. N., Whitman, R. L., Shively, D. A., Ting, W. T., Tseng, C. C. andNevers, M. B. (2006). Seasonal persistence and population characteristics ofEscherichia coli and enterococci in deep backshore sand of two freshwater beaches.J. Water Health, 4(3), 313–320.Castro-Hermida, J. A., García-Presedo, I., Almeida, A., González-Warleta, M., Da Costa,J. M. C. and Mezo, M. (2009). Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia
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3Zoonotic waterborne pathogen loads
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Zoonotic waterborne pathogen loads
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the cause of a variety of food- and
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4Zoonotic waterbornepathogens in li
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Zoonotic waterborne pathogens in li
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controlling E. coli-associated diar
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5Transport of microbial pollution i
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Transport of microbial pollution in
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Page 268 and 269: 7ExposureWill Robertson and Gordon
Page 270 and 271: Exposure 259main components influen
Page 272 and 273: Exposure 261rainfall events (Atherh
Page 274 and 275: Exposure 263contact activities, the
Page 276 and 277: Exposure 265Table 7.1 Notable studi
Page 278 and 279: Exposure 267Table 7.2 Notable studi
Page 280 and 281: Exposure 269water than zoonotic pat
Page 282 and 283: Exposure 2711999). As suggested by
Page 284 and 285: Exposure 273leptospirosis is primar
Page 288 and 289: Exposure 277duodenalis in surface w
Page 290 and 291: Exposure 279Keeley, A. and Faulkner
Page 292: Exposure 281Schultz-Fademrecht, C.,
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IndexAgricultural runoff, 122, 168,
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Index 463Biogas, 137-139, 291Bio-se
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Index 465Critical control points, 1
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Index 467290-291, 293, 295, 300, 30
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Index 469Hazard detection, 285Hazar
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Index 471pathogens, 2, 4-14, 17-21,
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Index 473Probiotics, 132-133Protozo
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Index 475Molecular, 16, 19, 22, 27,
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