Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health

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6Effectiveness of best managementpractices for attenuating the transportof livestock-derived pathogenswithin catchmentsDavid Kay, John Crowther, Christopher Kay,Adrian T. Mcdonald, Christobel Ferguson,Carl M. Stapleton and Mark D. Wyer6.1 INTRODUCTIONWaterborne pathogens (and associated faecal indicator organisms (FIOs)) derivedfrom human and animal faeces are a significant water quality concern in manyparts of the world. In the United States of America (USA) “pathogens” (actuallyFIOs: coliforms and enterococci) are the most frequent cause of “impairment”(i.e. non-compliance) in waters covered by the US Clean Water Act (see:Figure 6.1) (USEPA 2009). The design and implementation of measures to© 2012 World Health Organization (WHO). Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health. Editedby Al Dufour, Jamie Bartram, Robert Bos and Victor Gannon. ISBN: 9781780401232. Published byIWA Publishing, London, UK.
196Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Healthattenuate the transport of pathogens and FIOs from catchment source areas to pointsof water resource use are now legal requirements in Europe and North America. Inthe European Union (EU), for example, the Water Framework Directive (WFD;(CEC 2000)) requires Member States to design a “programme of measures”(POM) to ensure compliance with the microbiological standards set out indaughter directives, such as those relating to bathing waters (the World HealthOrganisation (WHO) health-based standards recently agreed by the EUParliament; (WHO 2003, Kay, Bartram et al. 2004, CEC 2006)); and tonear-shore and estuarine shellfish-harvesting waters, which are identified as a“protected area”. POMs usually need to address both human and livestocksources within catchments. The former are mostly point-source dischargesof treated or untreated sewage effluent and, as such, are relatively easy to identify,monitor and regulate. Livestock sources, by contrast, are mostly “diffuse” (e.g.inputs of fresh faeces or application of stored manures to land), though specificpoint sources can often be identified (e.g. farm steadings and feedlots used bycattle, manure heaps). They are generally more variable in character, dependingon local conditions, and, therefore, more difficult to investigate and characterisethan sewerage sources. The effectiveness of potential remediation strategies ismore difficult to assess. Indeed, in many cases there is a lack of empirical data.Figure 6.1 Reasons for impairment in all USA waters covered by the Clean Water Act on 6 thSeptember 2009. The actual microbial parameters implied by the word “Pathogens” are actuallythe coliforms and enterococci (USEPA 2009).In many countries, legislation has been introduced governing certainlivestock-related farming operations that pose a high risk to the environment. InEngland and Wales, for example, the Control of Pollution (Silage, Slurry andAgricultural Fuel Oil) Regulations (Statutory Instrument (SI) [England &Wales] 1991) place strict requirements on farmers concerning the storage andhandling of manure, especially slurry. In the USA, technology standards are setfor the processing of animal feedlot runoff (Federal Register (US) 2003). In
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3Zoonotic waterborne pathogen loads
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Zoonotic waterborne pathogen loads
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the cause of a variety of food- and
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4Zoonotic waterbornepathogens in li
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Zoonotic waterborne pathogens in li
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controlling E. coli-associated diar
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7ExposureWill Robertson and Gordon
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Exposure 259main components influen
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Exposure 261rainfall events (Atherh
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Exposure 263contact activities, the
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Exposure 265Table 7.1 Notable studi
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Exposure 267Table 7.2 Notable studi
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Exposure 269water than zoonotic pat
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Exposure 2711999). As suggested by
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Exposure 273leptospirosis is primar
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are severely underreported. As with
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Exposure 277duodenalis in surface w
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Exposure 279Keeley, A. and Faulkner
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Exposure 281Schultz-Fademrecht, C.,
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IndexAgricultural runoff, 122, 168,
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Index 463Biogas, 137-139, 291Bio-se
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Index 465Critical control points, 1
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Index 467290-291, 293, 295, 300, 30
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Index 469Hazard detection, 285Hazar
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Index 471pathogens, 2, 4-14, 17-21,
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Index 473Probiotics, 132-133Protozo
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Index 475Molecular, 16, 19, 22, 27,
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Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health

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