Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health

298Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Healthresults in a greater likelihood of isolating this organism. In endemic/enzooticregions, new molecular epidemiological approaches have proven to be usefultools for directing public health actions. Definitive identification of significantnumbers of microorganisms should prompt public education targeted atprevention strategies, such as use of footwear for contact exposure andchlorination of drinking-water (Haake 2006). In urban settings, garbagecollection and other rodent control measures would be effective in reducing theconcentration of pathogens in surface water. In rural settings, improvements inanimal husbandry, such as antibiotic treatment of infected animals and routinevaccination, could reduce leptospiral carriage and shedding (Haake 2006).Such a model for exposure intervention has been formulated in Kerala State,India. The plan of action was prepared by the Kerala State Institute of Virologyand Infectious Disease; outlining personal protective and public health measuresin an attempt to prevent disease transmission (John 2005). The Kerala Stateleptospirosis control programme is four-pronged involving: 1) a broad-basedinfectious-disease control policy, priority, and programme in the governmenthealth system, 2) public health training for all officials (home visits), 3) afunctional disease surveillance programme (epidemiological surveys), and 4) adiagnostic laboratory capable of monitoring the success of the leptospirosiscontrol programme (including the ability to participate in the survey of localfauna including rodents, wild, and domesticated animals) (John 2005).8.4.3 SalmonellaSalmonella infection transmitted via a water source has historically focusedon typhoid (S. typhi) and paratyphoid fever (S. parathyphi). Reductions intyphoid fever have occurred as a result of advanced sanitation practices, yetthe existing estimate of the global burden of typhoid and paratyphoid feveris 27 million illnesses and 216,000 deaths annually (Crump et al. 2004).Typhoid fever can be avoided through vaccination, adequate treatment ofdrinking-water, proper food handling, and exclusion of disease carriers fromfood preparation.Other species of Salmonella may also be of public health concern. Salmonellaserotype Saintpaul has been isolated from irrigation water used to produce alfalfasprouts (CDC 2009). A study of the Seine River in France (2000–2005) revealedthat the highest density of culturable Salmonella was to be found in upstreamportions of the estuary and urban areas (Touron et al. 2007). Elevations inSalmonella occurred in response to a variety of environmental conditions withupstream (agricultural) locations having greater densities during high flowsituations and downstream (urbanized areas) under low flow (Touron et al.