Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health

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1.5 SCOPE OF THIS BOOKIntroduction 11The subject of zoonoses of potential concern for waterborne transmission has a largescope. During the development of this book it was decided to focus on thosezoonoses for which there is a credible prospect of regulatory action. This led to afocus on infectious agents from animals that are under human management (bothcommercial and subsistence livestock), safe management of wastes produced bywhich might reasonably be required or encouraged. Thus, the focus is onlivestock, rather than feral or wild animals. Such a distinction is to some extentartificial and some pathogens may derive from both livestock and wild animals.For example both Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium parvum infect theintestinal tract of a range of host animals including humans, dogs, cats, cattle,sheep, horses and rodents among others; while the infectivity to humans ofstrains from different animal sources appears to vary (e.g. S. japonicum).Furthermore, a pragmatic decision was made to exclude domestic pets such asdogs and cats from consideration as the interventions that would contribute to thecontrol of their excreta are distinct. While fish farming may be included under adefinition of intensified livestock production, fish excreta were also excludedfrom consideration.Finally, this book looks at the assessment, regulation and management ofexisting hazards. It does not address the issue of true “emergence” that is naturalpropagation of an entirely new pathogen of human public health significance.Such emergence occurs across viruses, bacteria, protozoa and other pathogens; itis, however, especially frequent among viruses. Examples include Severe AcuteRespiratory Syndrome (SARS), that arose from a 27 base pair deletion in ananimal corona virus (likely to have previously sporadically infected humanswith less severe consequences); this mutation rendered it highly pathogenic forhumans. The periodic emergence of novel strains of influenza viruses fromrecombination provides a further example. True emergence has, presumably,also happened at some point in the past with Hepatitis E virus (HEV). It isnoteworthy that around 75% of emerging pathogens are of zoonotic origin.Notwithstanding the exclusion of true emergence, history suggests thatresilience can be embedded into public health systems through recognizing thevalue of planning for the unexpected.Thus prevention of faecal contamination of recreational waters anddrinking-water sources will impact beneficially on the control of a wide rangeof known and potentially unknown and yet-to-emerge pathogens; andmultiple-barrier treatments that employ multiple and different processes aremore likely to be effective against an unrecognized or emergent agent than thosewhich rely on a single process of removal or inactivation.
12Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health1.6 STRUCTURE OF THIS BOOKThis book is structured according to the major issues discussed and as summarizedin Figure 1.2:• This introduction summarizes the rationale, context, objectives, scope andstructure of the book.• Chapter 2 summarises the state of knowledge with regard to specific,credible waterborne pathogens. In terms of the further development of thebook it importantly introduces the idea of a limited number of prioritypathogens that are used to assess and calibrate interventions in theremainder of the book.• Chapters 3–8 then explore the major components of source (load), transportand (human) exposure:○ Chapter 3 looks at sources and load as a composite issue, including state ofknowledge and the adequacy of available data and tools in assessment andmonitoring. Chapter 4 explores current knowledge of interventions toreduce load including specifically those that may be the targets ofregulation and issues associated with such regulation.○ Chapter 5 looks at transport as an issue, including state of knowledge andthe adequacy of available data and tools in assessment and monitoring.Chapter 6 explores current knowledge of interventions to managetransport including specifically those that may be the targets ofregulation and issues associated with such regulation.○Chapter 7 looks at human exposure, including the state of knowledge andthe adequacy of available data and tools in assessment and monitoring.Chapter 8 explores current knowledge of interventions close to the pointof exposure, including specifically those that may be the targets ofregulation and issues associated with such regulation.• Following introduction of the critical issues of load transport and exposure,three chapters are dedicated to exploring the data and tools used, associatedstate of knowledge and the adequacy of information generated by them toinform both regulation and management.○ Chapter 9: Indicators, Sanitary Surveys and Source AttributionTechniques.○○○Chapter 10: Comparative Risk Analysis.Chapter 11 contains a review of epidemiological studies on swimmerhealth effects associated with potential exposure to zoonotic pathogensin bathing beach water.Chapter 12 looks at economic evaluation – the assessment of risks, costsand effectiveness of interventions and costs and impact of regulatory
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3Zoonotic waterborne pathogen loads
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Zoonotic waterborne pathogen loads
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the cause of a variety of food- and
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4Zoonotic waterbornepathogens in li
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controlling E. coli-associated diar
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5Transport of microbial pollution i
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7ExposureWill Robertson and Gordon
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Exposure 259main components influen
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Exposure 261rainfall events (Atherh
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Exposure 263contact activities, the
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Exposure 265Table 7.1 Notable studi
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Exposure 267Table 7.2 Notable studi
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Exposure 269water than zoonotic pat
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Exposure 2711999). As suggested by
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Exposure 273leptospirosis is primar
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are severely underreported. As with
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Exposure 277duodenalis in surface w
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Exposure 279Keeley, A. and Faulkner
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Exposure 281Schultz-Fademrecht, C.,
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IndexAgricultural runoff, 122, 168,
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Index 463Biogas, 137-139, 291Bio-se
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Index 465Critical control points, 1
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Index 467290-291, 293, 295, 300, 30
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Index 469Hazard detection, 285Hazar
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Index 471pathogens, 2, 4-14, 17-21,
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Index 473Probiotics, 132-133Protozo
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Index 475Molecular, 16, 19, 22, 27,
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