Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health

338Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Healthfeasibility of a health-based monitoring approach of recreational waters wasproposed as the result of an expert consultation sponsored by the WHO andUSEPA and resulted in the development of the Annapolis Protocol (WHO1999). The Annapolis Protocol suggests a classification scheme for recreationalwaters (very poor, poor, fair, good, or excellent) based upon health risk. Aclassification scheme would allow for more flexibility while still measuringmicrobial indicators of faecal contamination using approved analytical methodssince influential factors such as the variable effects of precipitation and waveaction can be accounted for within the overall bathing water quality assessmentframework. A holistic and systematic integrated approach aimed at providinginsight into the sources and mechanisms responsible for degraded water quality,may serve as a model for source determination and remediation in flowing,inland and coastal water bodies worldwide.The current WHO guidelines for safe recreational water environments basethe initial classification of recreational waters on the combined evidence ofhuman faecal contamination sources (sewage, river discharge, and bathercontamination) and compliance monitoring using faecal indicator organisms(WHO 2003). Where human inputs are minimal the potential for animal faecalpollution must also be addressed (WHO 2003). The ability to ascribe a level ofrisk associated with primary water contact could be applied to as an effectivepublic health management action, such as the posting of an advisory notice todiscourage recreational water use during incidences of poor water quality. Bettermanagement and remediation of contamination sources would allow for thereclassification of bathing beaches previously identified as having poor waterquality (WHO 1999).9.7 CASE STUDIESIn this section two case studies are presented which illustrate the efficacy of sourceattribution techniques as part of a holistic monitoring approach. In these casestudies various assessment schemes are utilized to identify sources ofcontamination impacting source or surface waters: genotyping ofCryptosporidium spp in a drinking-water associated outbreak in the UnitedKingdom and the use of source attribution techniques as part of monitoringscheme to locate and mitigate pollutant source impacting bathing waters at abeach in the USA. While by no means comprehensive, they provide goodexamples of how agencies can use the best available science to developmonitoring, public notification and remediation plans for the improvement ofsource/surface water quality and the reduction of health risks.