Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health

196Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Healthattenuate the transport of pathogens and FIOs from catchment source areas to pointsof water resource use are now legal requirements in Europe and North America. Inthe European Union (EU), for example, the Water Framework Directive (WFD;(CEC 2000)) requires Member States to design a “programme of measures”(POM) to ensure compliance with the microbiological standards set out indaughter directives, such as those relating to bathing waters (the World HealthOrganisation (WHO) health-based standards recently agreed by the EUParliament; (WHO 2003, Kay, Bartram et al. 2004, CEC 2006)); and tonear-shore and estuarine shellfish-harvesting waters, which are identified as a“protected area”. POMs usually need to address both human and livestocksources within catchments. The former are mostly point-source dischargesof treated or untreated sewage effluent and, as such, are relatively easy to identify,monitor and regulate. Livestock sources, by contrast, are mostly “diffuse” (e.g.inputs of fresh faeces or application of stored manures to land), though specificpoint sources can often be identified (e.g. farm steadings and feedlots used bycattle, manure heaps). They are generally more variable in character, dependingon local conditions, and, therefore, more difficult to investigate and characterisethan sewerage sources. The effectiveness of potential remediation strategies ismore difficult to assess. Indeed, in many cases there is a lack of empirical data.Figure 6.1 Reasons for impairment in all USA waters covered by the Clean Water Act on 6 thSeptember 2009. The actual microbial parameters implied by the word “Pathogens” are actuallythe coliforms and enterococci (USEPA 2009).In many countries, legislation has been introduced governing certainlivestock-related farming operations that pose a high risk to the environment. InEngland and Wales, for example, the Control of Pollution (Silage, Slurry andAgricultural Fuel Oil) Regulations (Statutory Instrument (SI) [England &Wales] 1991) place strict requirements on farmers concerning the storage andhandling of manure, especially slurry. In the USA, technology standards are setfor the processing of animal feedlot runoff (Federal Register (US) 2003). In